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isbe[3501]='Folly`fol\'-i.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=FOOL">FOOL</a>`1';
isbe[3502]='Food`food:<P><b>I. VEGETABLE FOODS</b><P class="in15">1. Primitive Habits<P class="in15">2. Cereals<P class="in15">3. Leguminous Plants<P class="in15">4. Food of Trees<P><b>II. ANIMAL FOOD</b><P><b>LITERATURE</B><hr /><P>In a previous article (see <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=BREAD">BREAD</a>) it has been shown that in the Bible "bread" usually stands for food in general and how this came to be so. In a complementary article on <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=MEALS">MEALS</a> the methods of preparing and serving food will be dealt with. This article is devoted specifically to the foodstuffs of the Orient, more especially to articles of food in use among the Hebrews in Bible times. These are divisible into two main classes.<P>I. Vegetable Foods.<P>1. Primitive Habits:<P>Orientals in general are vegetarians, rather than flesh eaters. There is some reason to believe that primitive man was a vegetarian (see <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',2,16);">Ge 2:16</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',3,2,6);">3:2, 6</a>). It would seem, indeed, from a comparison of <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',1,29);">Ge 1:29</a>f with <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',9,3);">9:3</a>f that Divine permission to eat the flesh of animals was first given to Noah after the Deluge, and then only on condition of drawing off the blood in a prescribed way (compare the kosher (kasher) meat of the Jews of today).<P>2. Cereals:<P>The chief place among the foodstuffs of Orientals must be accorded to the cereals, included in the American Standard Revised Version under the generic term "grain," in the King James Version and the English Revised Version "corn." The two most important of these in the nearer East are wheat (chittah) and barley (se\'orim). The most primitive way of using the wheat as food was to pluck the (<a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',23,14);">Le 23:14</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',4,42);">2Ki 4:42</a>), remove the husks by rubbing in the hands (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',23,25);">De 23:25</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',12,1);">Mt 12:1</a>), and eat the grains raw. A common practice in all lands and periods, observed by the fellaheen of Syria today, has been to parch or roast the ears and eat the grain not ground. This is the parched corn (the American Standard Revised Version "\'grain") so often mentioned in the Old Testament, which with bread and vinegar (sour wine) constituted the meal of the reapers to which Boaz invited Ruth (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rth\',2,14);">Ru 2:14</a>).<P>Later it became customary to grind the wheat into flour (kemach), and, by bolting it with a fine sieve, to obtain the "fine flour" (coleth) of our English Versions of the Bible, which, of course, was then made into "<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=BREAD">bread</a>" (which see), either without leaven (matstsah) or with (lechem chamets <a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',7,13);">Le 7:13</a>).<P>Meal, both of wheat and of barley, was prepared in very early times by means of the primitive rubbing-stones, which excavations at Lachish, Gezer and elsewhere show survived the introduction of the hand-mill (see <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=MILL">MILL</a>; Compare PEFS, 1902, 326). Barley (se\'orim) has always furnished the principal food of the poorer classes, and, like wheat, has been made into bread (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',7,13);">Jud 7:13</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',6,9,13);">Joh 6:9, 13</a>). Less frequently millet (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',4,9);">Eze 4:9</a>) and spelt (kuccemeth; see <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=FITCHES">FITCHES</a>) were so used. (For details of baking, bread-making, etc., see <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=BREAD">BREAD. III, 1,2,3.</a>)<P>3. Leguminous Plants:<P>Vegetable foods of the pulse family (leguminosae) are represented in the Old Testament chiefly by lentils and beans. The pulse of <a onClick="return mV(\'Dan\',1,12);">Da 1:12</a> (zero\'im) denotes edible "herbs" in general (Revised Version margin, compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',61,11);">Isa 61:11</a>, "things that are sown"). The lentils (\'adhashim) were and are considered very toothsome and nutritious. It was of "red lentils" that Jacob brewed his fateful pottage (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',25,29,34);">Ge 25:29, 34</a>), a stew, probably, in which the lentils were flavored with onions and other ingredients, as we find it done in Syria today. Lentils, beans, cereals, etc., were sometimes ground and mixed and made into bread (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',4,9);">Eze 4:9</a>). I found them at Gaza roasted also, and eaten with oil and salt, like parched corn.<P>The children of Israel, when in the wilderness, are said to have looked back wistfully on the "cucumbers...melons...leeks...onions, and the garlic" of Egypt (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',11,5);">Nu 11:5</a>). All these things we find later were grown in Palestine. In addition, at least four varieties of the bean, the chickpea, various species of chickory and endive, the bitter herbs of the Passover ritual (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',12,8);">Ex 12:8</a>), mustard (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',13,31);">Mt 13:31</a>) and many other things available for food, are mentioned in the Mishna, our richest source of information on this subject. Cucumbers (qishshu\'im) were then, as now, much used. The oriental variety is much less fibrous and more succulent. and digestible than ours, and supplies the thirsty traveler often with a fine substitute for water where water is scarce or bad. The poor in such cities as Cairo, Beirut and Damascus live largely on bread and cucumbers or melons. The cucumbers are eaten raw, with or without salt, between meals, but also often stuffed and cooked and eaten at meal time. Onions (betsalim), garlic (shummim) and leeks (chatsir) are still much used in Palestine as in Egypt. They are usually eaten raw with bread, though also used for flavoring in cooking, and, like cucumbers, pickled and eaten as a relish with meat (ZDPV, IX, 14). Men in utter extremity sometimes "plucked saltwort" (malluah) and ate the leaves, either raw or boiled, and made "the roots of the broom" their food (<a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',30,4);">Job 30:4</a>).<P>4. Food of Trees:<P>In <a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',19,23);">Le 19:23</a>f it is implied that, when Israel came into the land to possess it, they should "plant all manner of trees for food." They doubtless found such trees in the goodly land in abundance, but in the natural course of things needed to plant more. Many olive trees remain fruitful to extreme old age, as for example those shown the tourist in the garden of Gethsemane, but many more require replanting. Then the olive after planting requires ten or fifteen years to fruit, and trees of a quicker growth, like the fig, are planted beside them and depended on for fruit in the meantime. It is significant that Jotham in his parable makes the olive the first choice of the trees to be their king (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',9,9);">Jud 9:9</a>), and the olive tree to respond, "Should I leave my fatness, which God and man honor in me, and go to wave to and fro over the trees?" (American Revised Version margin). The berries of the olive (zayith) were doubtless eaten, then as now, though nowhere in Scripture is it expressly so stated. The chief use of the berries, now as ever, is in furnishing "<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=OIL">oil</a>" (which see), but they are eaten in the fresh state, as also after being soaked in brine, by rich and poor alike, and are shipped in great quantities. Olive trees are still more or less abundant in Palestine, especially around Bethlehem and Hebron, on the borders of the rich plains of Esdraelon, Phoenicia, Sharon and Philistia, in the vale of Shechem, the plain of Moreh, and in the trans-Jordanic regions of Gilead and Bashan. They are esteemed as among the best possessions of the towns, and the culture of them is being revived around Jerusalem, in the Jordan valley and elsewhere throughout the land. They are beautiful to behold in all stages of their growth, but especially in spring. Then they bear an amazing wealth of blossoms, which in the breeze fall in showers like snowflakes, a fact that gives point to Job\'s words, "He shall cast off his flower as the olive-tree" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',15,33);">Job 15:33</a>). The mode of gathering the fruit is still about what it was in ancient times (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',27,20);">Ex 27:20</a>).<P>Next in rank to the olive, according to Jotham\'s order, though first as an article of food, is the fig (in the Old Testament te\'enah, in the New Testament suke), whose "sweetness" is praised in the parable (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',9,11);">Jud 9:11</a>). It is the principal shade and fruit tree of Palestine, growing in all parts, in many spontaneously, and is the emblem of peace and prosperity (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',8,8);">De 8:8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',9,10);">Jud 9:10</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',4,25);">1Ki 4:25</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mic\',4,4);">Mic 4:4</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Zec\',3,10);">Zec 3:10</a>; 1Macc 14:12). The best fig and olive orchards are carefully plowed, first in the spring when the buds are swelling, sometimes again when the second crop is sprouting, and again after the first rains in the autumn. The "first-ripe fig" (bikkurah, <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',28,4);">Isa 28:4</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',24,2);">Jer 24:2</a>), i.e. the early fig which grows on last year\'s wood, was and is esteemed as a great delicacy, and is often eaten while it is young and green. The late fig (te\'enim) is the kind dried in the sun and put up in quantities for use out of season. Among the Greeks and the Romans, as well as among the Hebrews, dried figs were most extensively used. When pressed in a mold they formed the "cakes of figs" (debhelah) mentioned in the Old Testament (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',25,18);">1Sa 25:18</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',12,40);">1Ch 12:40</a>), doubtless about such as are found today in Syria and Smyrna, put up for home use and for shipment. It was such a fig-cake that was presented as a poultice (the King James Version "plaster") for Hezekiah\'s boil (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',38,21);">Isa 38:21</a>; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',20,7);">2Ki 20:7</a>). As the fruit-buds of the fig appear before the leaves, a tree full of leaves and without fruit would be counted "barren" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',11,12);">Mr 11:12</a>f; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',28,4);">Isa 28:4</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',24,2);">Jer 24:2</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Hsa\',9,10);">Ho 9:10</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Nah\',3,12);">Na 3:12</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',21,19);">Mt 21:19</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',13,7);">Lu 13:7</a>).<P>Grapes (\'anabhim), often called "the fruit of the vine" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',26,29);">Mt 26:29</a>), have always been a much-prized article of food in the Orient. They are closely associated in the Bible with the fig (compare "every man under his vine and under his fig-tree," <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',4,25);">1Ki 4:25</a>). Like the olive, the fig, and the date-palm, grapes are indigenous to Syria, the soil and climate being most favorable to their growth and perfection. Southern Palestine especially yields a rich abundance of choice grapes, somewhat as in patriarchal times (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',49,11,12);">Ge 49:11-12</a>). J. T. Haddad, a native Syrian, for many years in the employment of the Turkish government, tells of a variety in the famous valley of Eshcol near Hebron, a bunch from which has been known to weigh twenty-eight pounds (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',13,23);">Nu 13:23</a>). Of the grapevine there is nothing wasted; the young leaves are used as a green vegetable, and the old are fed to sheep and goats. The branches cut off in pruning, as well as the dead trunk, are used to make charcoal, or for firewood. The failure of such a fruit was naturally regarded as a judgment from Yahweh (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',105,33);">Ps 105:33</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',5,17);">Jer 5:17</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Hsa\',2,12);">Ho 2:12</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Joe\',1,7);">Joe 1:7</a>). Grapes, like figs, were both enjoyed in their natural state, and by exposure to the sun dried into raisins (tsimmuqim), the "dried grapes" of <a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',6,3);">Nu 6:3</a>. In this form they were especially well suited to the use of travelers and soldiers (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',25,18);">1Sa 25:18</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',12,40);">1Ch 12:40</a>). The meaning of the word rendered "raisin-cake," the American Standard Revised Version "a cake of raisins" (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',6,19);">2Sa 6:19</a> and elsewhere), is uncertain. In Bible times the bulk of the grape product of the land went to the making of <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=WINE">wine</a> (which see). Some doubt if the Hebrews knew grape-syrup, but the fact that the Aramaic dibs, corresponding to Hebrew debhash, is used to denote both the natural and artificial honey (grape-syrup), seems to indicate that they knew the latter (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',43,11);">Ge 43:11</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',27,17);">Eze 27:17</a>; and see <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=HONEY">HONEY</a>).<P>Less prominent was the fruit of the mulberry figtree (or sycomore) (shiqmah), of the date-palm (tamar), the dates of which, according to the Mishna, were both eaten as they came from the tree, and dried in clusters and pressed into cakes for transport; the pomegranate (tappuach), the "apple" of the King James Version (see <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=APPLE;+APPLE-TREE">APPLE</a>), or quinch, according to others; the husks (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',15,16);">Lu 15:16</a>), i.e. the pods of the carob tree keration), are treated elsewhere. Certain nuts were favorite articles of food<6F>pistachio nuts (botnim), almonds (sheqedhim) and walnuts (\'eghoz); and certain spices and vegetables were much used for seasoning: <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=CUMMIN">cummin</a> (kammon), <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ANISE;+DILL">anise, dill</a> (the King James Version) qetsach), <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=MINT">mint</a> (heduosmon) and <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=MUSTARD">mustard</a> (sinapi), which see. <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=SALT">Salt</a> (melach), of course, played an important part, then as now, in the cooking and in the life of the Orientals. To "eat the salt" of a person was synonymous with eating his bread (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ezr\',4,14);">Ezr 4:14</a>), and a "<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=SALT,+COVENANT+OF">covenant of salt</a>" was held inviolable (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',18,19);">Nu 18:19</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',13,5);">2Ch 13:5</a>).<P>II. Animal Food.<P>Anciently, even more than now in the East, flesh food was much less used than among western peoples. In the first place, in Israel and among other Semitic peoples, it was confined by law to the use of such animals and birds as were regarded as "clean" (see <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=CLEAN">CLEAN</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=UNCLEANNESS">UNCLEANNESS</a>), or speaking according to the categories of <a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',11,2,3);">Le 11:2-3</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',14,\'4-20\');">De 14:4-20</a>, domestic animals and game (see Driver on <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',14,\'4-20\');">De 14:4-20</a>). Then the poverty of the peasantry from time immemorial has tended to limit the use of meat to special occasions, such as family festivals (chaggim), the entertainment of an honored guest (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',18,7);">Ge 18:7</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',12,4);">2Sa 12:4</a>), and the sacrificial meal at the local sanctuary.<P>The goat (\'ez, etc.), especially the "kid of the goats" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',4,23,28);">Le 4:23, 28</a> the King James Version), was more prized for food by the ancient Hebrews than by modern Orientals, by whom goats are kept chiefly for their milk<6C>most of which they supply (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',27,27);">Pr 27:27</a>). For this reason they are still among the most valued possessions of rich and poor (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',30,33);">Ge 30:33</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',32,14);">32:14</a> with <a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',25,2);">1Sa 25:2</a>). A kid, as less valuable than a lamb, was naturally the readier victim when meat was required (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',15,29);">Lu 15:29</a>).<P>The sheep of Palestine, as of Egypt, are mainly of the fat-tailed species (Ovis aries), the tail of which was forbidden as ordinary food and had to be offered with certain other portions of the fat (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',29,22);">Ex 29:22</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',3,9);">Le 3:9</a>). To kill a lamb in honor of a gue st is one of the highest acts of Bedouin hospitality. As a rule only the lambs are killed for meat, and they only in honor of some guest or festive occasion (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',25,18);">1Sa 25:18</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',1,19);">1Ki 1:19</a>). Likewise the "calves of the herd" supplied the daintiest food of the kind, though the flesh of the neat cattle, male and female, was eaten. The "fatted calf" of <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',15,23);">Lu 15:23</a> will be recalled, as also the "fatlings" and the "stalled" (stall-fed) ox of the Old Testament (<a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',15,17);">Pr 15:17</a>). Asharp contrast suggestive of the growth of luxury in Israel is seen by a comparison of <a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',17,28);">2Sa 17:28</a>f with <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',4,22);">1Ki 4:22</a>f. The food furnished David and his hardy followers at Mahanaim was "wheat, and barley, and meal, and parched grain, and beans, and lentils, and parched pulse, and honey, and butter, and sheep, and cheese of the herd," while the daily provision for Solomon\'s table was "thirty measures of fine flour, and threescore measures of meal, ten fat oxen, and twenty oxen out of the pastures, and a hundred sheep, besides harts, and gazelles, and roebucks, and fatted fowl." Nehemiah\'s daily portion is given as "one ox and six choice sheep" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Neh\',5,18);">Ne 5:18</a>).<P>Milk of large and small animals was a staple article of food (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',32,14);">De 32:14</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',27,27);">Pr 27:27</a>). It was usually kept in skins, as among the Syrian peasants it is today (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',4,19);">Jud 4:19</a>). We find a generic term often used (chem\'ah) which covers also cream, clabber and cheese (<a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',30,33);">Pr 30:33</a>). The proper designation of cheese is gebhinah (<a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',10,10);">Job 10:10</a>), but chalabh also is used both for ordinary milk and for a cheese made directly from sweet milk (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',17,18);">1Sa 17:18</a>, charitse hechalabh, and our "cottage cheese").<P>See <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=MILK">MILK</a>.<P>Honey (debhash, nopheth ha-tsuphim), so often mentioned with milk, is ordinary bees\' honey (see <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=HONEY">HONEY</a>). The expression "honey" in the combination debhash wechalabh, for which Palestine was praised, most likely means debhash temarim, i.e. "date-juice." It was much prized and relished (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',19,10);">Ps 19:10</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',16,24);">Pr 16:24</a>), and seems to have been a favorite food for children (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',7,15);">Isa 7:15</a>).<P>Of game seven species are mentioned (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',14,5);">De 14:5</a>). The gazelle and the hart were the typical animals of the chase, much prized for their flesh (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',12,15);">De 12:15</a>), and doubtless supplied the venison of Esau\'s "savory meat" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',25,28);">Ge 25:28</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',27,4);">27:4</a>).<P>Of fish as food little is said in the Old Testament (see <a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',11,5);">Nu 11:5</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',16,16);">Jer 16:16</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',47,10);">Eze 47:10</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',9,12);">Ec 9:12</a>). No particular species is named, although thirty-six species are said to be found in the waters of the Jordan valley alone. But we may be sure that the fish which the Hebrews enjoyed in Egypt "for nought" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',11,5);">Nu 11:5</a>) had their successors in Canaan (Kennedy). Trade in cured fish was carried on by Tyrian merchants with Jerusalem in Nehemiah\'s day (<a onClick="return mV(\'Neh\',13,16);">Ne 13:16</a>), and there must have been a fish market at or near the fish gate (<a onClick="return mV(\'Neh\',3,3);">Ne 3:3</a>). The Sea of Galilee in later times was the center of a great fish industry, as is made clear by the Gospels and by Josephus In the market of Tiberias today fresh fish are sold in great quantities, and a thriving trade in salt fish is carried on. The "small fishes" of our Lord\'s two great miracles of feeding were doubtless of this kind, as at all times they have been a favorite form of provision for a journey in hot countries.<P>As to the exact price of food in ancient times little is known. From <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',7,1,16);">2Ki 7:1, 16</a> we learn that one ce\'ah of fine flour, and two of barley, sold for a shekel (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',10,29);">Mt 10:29</a>). For birds allowed as food see <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',14,11);">De 14:11</a> and articles on <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=CLEAN">CLEAN</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=UNCLEANNESS">UNCLEANNESS</a>.<P>Pigeons and turtle doves find a place in the ritual of various sacrifices, and so are to be reckoned as "clean" for ordinary uses as well. The species of domestic fowl found there today seem to have been introduced during the Persian period (compare 2Esdras 1:30; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',23,37);">Mt 23:37</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',26,34);">26:34</a>, etc.). It is thought that the fatted fowl of Solomon\'s table (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',4,23);">1Ki 4:23</a>) were geese (see Mish). Fatted goose is a favorite food with Jews today, as it was with the ancient Egyptians.<P>Of game birds used for food (see <a onClick="return mV(\'Neh\',5,18);">Ne 5:18</a>) the partridge and the quail are prominent, and the humble sparrow comes in for his share of mention (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',10,29);">Mt 10:29</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',12,6);">Lu 12:6</a>). Then, as now, the eggs of domestic fowls and of all "clean" birds were favorite articles of food (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',22,6);">De 22:6</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',10,14);">Isa 10:14</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',11,12);">Lu 11:12</a>).<P>Edible insects (<a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',11,22);">Le 11:22</a>f) are usually classed with animal foods. In general they are of the locust family (see <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=LOCUST">LOCUST</a>). They formed part of the food of John the Baptist (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',3,4);">Mt 3:4</a>, etc.), were regarded by the Assyrians as delicacies, and are a favorite food of the Arabs today. They are prepared and served in various ways, the one most common being to remove the head, legs and wings, to drop it in meal, and then fry it in oil or butter. It then tastes a little like fried frogs\' legs. In the diet of the Baptist, locusts were associated with wild honey (see <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=HONEY">HONEY</a>).<P>As to condiments (see separate articles on <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=SALT">SALT</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=CORIANDER">CORIANDER</a>, etc.) it needs only to be said here that the caperberry (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',12,5);">Ec 12:5</a> margin) was eaten before meals as an appetizer and, strictly speaking, was not a condiment. Mustard was valued for the leaves, not for the seed (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',13,31);">Mt 13:31</a>). Pepper, though not mentioned in Scripture, is mentioned margin the Mishna as among the condiments. Before it came into use, spicy seeds like cummin, the coriander, etc., played a more important role than since.<P>The abhorrence of the Hebrews for all food prepared or handled by the heathen (see <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ABOMINATION">ABOMINATION</a>) is to be attributed primarily to the intimate association in early times between flesh food and sacrifices to the gods. This finds conspicuous illustration in the case of Daniel (<a onClick="return mV(\'Dan\',1,8);">Da 1:8</a>), Judas Maccabeus (2Macc 5:27), Josephus (Vita, III), and their compatriots (see also <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',15,20,29);">Ac 15:20, 29</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',8,\'1-10\');">1Co 8:1-10</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',10,19,28);">10:19, 28</a>). As to sources of food supply and traffic in food stuffs, for primitive usages see <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',18,7);">Ge 18:7</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',27,9);">27:9</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',21,2);">1Ki 21:2</a>. As to articles and customs of commerce adopted when men became dwellers in cities, see <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',37,21);">Jer 37:21</a>, where bakers were numerous enough in Jerusalem to give their name to a street or bazaar, where doubtless, as today, they baked and sold bread to the public (compare Mishna, passim). Extensive trade in "victuals" in Nehemiah\'s day is attested by <a onClick="return mV(\'Neh\',13,15);">Ne 13:15</a>f; and by specific mention of the "fish gate" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Neh\',3,3);">3:3</a>) and the "sheep gate" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Neh\',3,1);">3:1</a>), so named evidently because of their nearby markets. In John\'s Gospel (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',4,8);">Joh 4:8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',13,29);">13:29</a>) we have incidental evidence that the disciples were accustomed to buy food as they journeyed through the land. In Jerusalem, cheese was clearly to be bought in the cheesemakers\' valley (Tyropoeon), oil of the oil merchants (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',25,9);">Mt 25:9</a>), and so on; and Corinth, we may be sure, was not the only city of Paul\'s day that had a provision market ("shambles," <a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',10,25);">1Co 10:25</a> the Revised Version (British and American)).<P>LITERATURE.<P>Mishna B.M. i. 1,2 and passim; Josephus, Vita and BJ; Robinson\'s Researches, II, 416, etc.; and Biblical Dictionaries, articles on "Food," etc.``47';
isbe[3503]='Fool; Folly`fool nabhal, \'ewil, kecil, cakhal and forms; aphron, aphrosune, moros):<P>I. In the Old Testament.<P>1. General:<P>Taking the words generally, apart from the Wisdom literature, we find nabhal frequently translated "fool" and nebhalah, "folly"; nabhal, however, denotes a wicked person, an evil character, "shamelessly immoral," equivalent to "a son of Belial" (Cheyne), rather than a merely "foolish" person, and nebhalah, "wickedness," "shameless impropriety," rather than simple folly. We have almost a definition of nabhal in <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',32,6);">Isa 32:6</a>: "For the fool will speak folly, and his heart will work iniquity, to practice profaneness, and to utter error against Yahweh, to make empty the soul of the hungry, and to cause the drink of the thirsty to fail." Abigail described her husband, Nabhal, as "a son of Belial" (the Revised Version (British and American) "worthless fellow"), "for as his name is, so is he" (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',25,25);">1Sa 25:25</a>), and what we read of him bears out this character. Other occurrences of the words support the above meaning; they are generally associated with some form of wickedness, frequently with base and unnatural lewdness (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',34,7);">Ge 34:7</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',22,21);">De 22:21</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',7,15);">Jos 7:15</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',19,23,24);">Jud 19:23-24</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',20,6,10);">20:6, 10</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',13,12);">2Sa 13:12</a>). When in <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',14,1);">Ps 14:1</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',53,1);">53:1</a> it is said, "The fool hath said in his heart, There is no God," it is followed by the statement, "They are corrupt, they have done abominable works," showing that more than "folly" is implied. In <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',32,5,6);">Isa 32:5-6</a> the King James Version nabhal is translated "vile person" and nebhalah "villany," the Revised Version (British and American) "fool" and "folly," <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',29,23);">Jer 29:23</a>; halal, implying loud boasting is in the King James Version translated "foolish," but it means, rather, "arrogant," which the Revised Version (British and American) adopts (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',5,5);">Ps 5:5</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',73,3);">73:3</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',75,4);">75:4</a>, margin "fools"); cakhal, "a fool," also occurs (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',31,28);">Ge 31:28</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',13,13);">1Sa 13:13</a>, etc.) for which word see (4) below; also ya\'al "to be empty," "to be or become foolish" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',12,11);">Nu 12:11</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',19,13);">Isa 19:13</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',5,4);">Jer 5:4</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',50,36);">50:36</a>).<P>2. The Wisdom Literature:<P>In the Chokhmah or Wisdom literature, which, within the Bible, is contained in Job, Proverbs (especially), Ecclesiastes, Canticles, some Psalms and certain portions of the prophetic writings, "fool" and "folly" are frequent and distinctive words. Their significance is best seen in contrast with "Wisdom." This was the outcome of careful observation and long pondering on actual life in the light of religion and the Divine revelation. Wisdom had its seat in God and was imparted to those who "feared" Him ("The fear of Yahweh is the beginning (chief part) of knowledge" <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',1,7);">Pr 1:7</a>). Such wisdom was the essence of life, and to be without it was to walk in the way of death and destruction. The fool was he who was thoughtless, careless, conceited, self-sufficient, indifferent to God and His Will, or who might even oppose and scoff at religion and wise instruction. See <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=WISDOM">WISDOM</a>. Various words are used to designate "the fool" and his "folly."<P>(1) nabhal (<a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',2,10);">Job 2:10</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',30,8);">30:8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',53,1);">Ps 53:1</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',17,\'7-21\');">Pr 17:7-21</a>); nebhalah (<a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',42,8);">Job 42:8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',9,17);">Isa 9:17</a>) (see above).<P>(2) \'ewil, one of the commonest, the idea conveyed by which is that of one who is hasty, impatient, self-sufficient (<a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',12,15);">Pr 12:15</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',15,5);">15:5</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',16,22);">16:22</a>); despising advice and instruction (<a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',1,7);">Pr 1:7</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',14,9);">14:9</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',24,7);">24:7</a>); ready to speak and act without thinking (<a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',10,14);">Pr 10:14</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',12,16);">12:16</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',20,3);">20:3</a>); quick to get angry, quarrel and cause strife (<a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',11,29);">Pr 11:29</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',14,17);">14:17</a> \'iwweleth; <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',29,9);">29:9</A>); unrestrained in his anger (<a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',5,2);">Job 5:2</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',17,12);">Pr 17:12</a>); silly, stupid even with brute stupidity (<a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',7,22);">Pr 7:22</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',26,11);">26:11</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',27,22);">27:22</a>; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',19,11);">Isa 19:11</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',4,22);">Jer 4:22</a>); he is associated with "transgression" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',107,17);">Ps 107:17</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',13,15);">Pr 13:15</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',17,18,19);">17:18-19</a>), with "sin" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',24,9);">Pr 24:9</a>), with the "scoffer" (same place);\' iwweleth, "foolishness" occurs (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',38,5);">Ps 38:5</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',69,5);">69:5</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',13,16);">Pr 13:16</a>; "folly," Ps <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',14,8,24,29);">14:8,24,29</A>, etc.).<P>(3) kecil is the word most frequent in Proverbs. It is probably from a root meaning "thickness," "sluggishness," suggesting a slow, self-confident person, but it is used with a wide reference.<P>Self-confidence appears (<a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',14,16);">Pr 14:16</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',28,26);">28:26</a>); ignorance (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',2,14);">Ec 2:14</a>); hate of instruction (<a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',1,22);">Pr 1:22</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',18,2);">18:2</a>); thoughtlessness (<a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',10,23);">Pr 10:23</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',17,24);">17:24</a>); self-exposure (<a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',14,33);">Pr 14:33</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',15,2);">15:2</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',18,7);">18:7</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',29,11);">29:11</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',5,1);">Ec 5:1</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',10,12);">10:12</a>); anger and contention (<a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',18,6);">Pr 18:6</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',19,1);">19:1</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',7,9);">Ec 7:9</a>); rage (<a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',14,16);">Pr 14:16</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',17,12);">17:12</a>); indolence and improvidence (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',4,5);">Ec 4:5</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',21,20);">Pr 21:20</a>); silly merriment (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',7,4,5,6);">Ec 7:4-6</a>); brutishness (<a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',26,11);">Pr 26:11</a>; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',49,10);">Ps 49:10</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',92,6);">92:6</a>); it is associated with slander (<a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',10,18);">Pr 10:18</a>), with evil (<a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',13,19);">Pr 13:19</a>).<P>(4) cakhal, cekhel, cikhluth, also occur. These are probably from a root meaning "to be stopped up" (Cheyne), and are generally taken as denoting thickheadedness; but they are used in a stronger sense than mere foolishness (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',26,21);">1Sa 26:21</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',24,10);">2Sa 24:10</a>, etc.). These words do not occur in Proverbs, but in <a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',2,12);">Ec 2:12</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',7,25);">7:25</a>; cikhluth is associated with "madness" ("Wickedness is folly, and...foolishness is madness").<P>(5) pethi, "simple," is only once translated "foolish" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',9,6);">Pr 9:6</a> the King James Version).<P>(6) ba\'ar, \'brutish," is translated "foolish" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',73,22);">Ps 73:22</a> the King James Version, the Revised Version (British and American) "brutish").<P>(7) taphel, "insipid," "untempered," is translated "foolish" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Lam\',2,14);">La 2:14</a>); tiphlah, "insipidity" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',1,22);">Job 1:22</a>, "foolishly," the English Revised Version, "with foolishness"; <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',24,12);">Job 24:12</a>, "folly"; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',23,13);">Jer 23:13</a>, "folly," the King James Version margin "unsavoury, or, an absurd thing").<P>(8) toholah (<a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',4,18);">Job 4:18</a>: "Behold, he putteth no trust in his servants; and his angels he chargeth with folly" (Delitzsch, "imperfection," others, "error"), the King James Version margin "nor in his angels in whom he put light").<P>II. In the Apocrypha.<P>In the continuation of the Wisdom literature in The Wisdom of Solomon and Ecclus, "fool" frequently occurs with a signification similar to that in Proverbs; in The Wisdom of Solomon we have aphron (12:24; 15:5, etc.), in Ecclesiasticus, moros (18:18; 19:11, etc.; 20:13; 21:16, etc.).<P>III. In the New Testament.<P>In the New Testament we have various words translated "fool," "foolish," "folly," etc., in the ordinary acceptation of these terms; aphron, "mindless," "witless" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',11,40);">Lu 11:40</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',12,20);">12:20</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',15,36);">1Co 15:36</a>); aphrosune, "want of mind or wisdom" (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',11,1);">2Co 11:1</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',7,22);">Mr 7:22</a>); anoia, "want of understanding" (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ti\',3,9);">2Ti 3:9</a>); moraino, "to make dull," "foolish" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',1,22);">Ro 1:22</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',1,20);">1Co 1:20</a>); moros, "dull," "stupid" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',7,26);">Mt 7:26</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',23,17);">23:17</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',25,2);">25:2</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',1,25,27);">1Co 1:25, 27</a>); moria, "foolishness" (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',1,18);">1Co 1:18</a> etc.); morologia, "foolish talk" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eph\',5,4);">Eph 5:4</a>).<P>In <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',5,22);">Mt 5:22</a> our Lord says: "Whosoever shall say (to his brother), Thou fool (more), shall be in danger of the hell of fire (the Gehenna of fire)." Two explanations of this word are possible:<P>(1) that it is not the vocative of the Greek moros<6F>a word which was applied by Jesus Himself to the Pharisees (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',23,17,19);">Mt 23:17, 19</a>), but represents the Hebrew morah, "rebel" applied in <a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',20,10);">Nu 20:10</a> by Moses to the people, "ye rebels" (for which he was believed to be excluded from the promised land; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',20,12);">Nu 20:12</a>; hence, we have in the Revised Version, margin "or moreh, a Hebrew expression of condemnation"); or<P>(2) that, as our Lord spake in the Aramaic it is the Greek translation of a word representing the Hebrew nabhal, "vile, or worthless fellow," atheist, etc. (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',14,1);">Ps 14:1</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',53,1);">53:1</a>).``185';
isbe[3504]='Foolery`fool\'-er-i:<P>The plural "fooleries" occurs Ecclesiasticus 22:13 King James Version: "Talk not much with a fool...and thou shalt never be defiled with his fooleries." The Greek word is entinagmos, "a striking or throwing in," "an attack," from entinasso, "to strike into," "cast at," etc. (1Macc 2:36; 2Macc 4:41; 11:11). the Revised Version (British and American) renders "Thou shalt not be defiled in his onslaught," margin "defiled: in his onslaught turn." The meaning is most probably "with what he throws out," i.e. his foolish or vile speeches, as if it were slaver.``1';
isbe[3505]='Foot`foot (reghel, qarcol (only twice in parallel passages: <a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',22,37);">2Sa 22:37</a> = <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',18,36);">Ps 18:36</a>, where it probably means ankle); pous): The dusty roads of Palestine and other eastern lands make a much greater care of the feet necessary than we are accustomed to bestow upon them. The absence of socks or stockings, the use of sandals and low shoes rather than boots and, to an even greater degree, the frequent habit of walking barefoot make it necessary to wash the feet repeatedly every day. This is always done when entering the house, especially the better upper rooms which are usually carpeted. It is a common dictate of good manners to perform this duty to a visitor, either personally or through a servant; at least water for washing has to be presented (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',18,4);">Ge 18:4</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',7,44);">Lu 7:44</a>). This has therefore become almost synonymous with the bestowal of hospitality (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ti\',5,10);">1Ti 5:10</a>). At an early date this service was considered one of the lowest tasks of servants (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',25,41);">1Sa 25:41</a>), probably because the youngest and least trained servants were charged with the task, or because of the idea of defilement connected with the foot. It was, for the same reason, if rendered voluntarily, a service which betokened complete devotion. Jesus taught the greatest lesson of humility by performing this humble service to His disciples (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',13,\'4-15\');">Joh 13:4-15</a>). The undoing of the latchets or leather thongs of the sandals (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',1,7);">Mr 1:7</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',3,16);">Lu 3:16</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',1,27);">Joh 1:27</a>) seems to refer to the same menial duty.<P>Often the feet and shoes were dusted on the highway, as is being done in the Orient to this day, but if it were done in an ostentatious manner in the presence of a person or a community who had refused hospitality to a stranger, it was understood in the same sense in which the cutting in two of the tablecloth was considered in the days of knighthood: it meant rejection and separation (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',10,14);">Mt 10:14</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',13,51);">Ac 13:51</a>).<P>The roads of the desert were not only dusty but rough, and the wanderer was almost sure to ruin his ill-made shoes and wound his weary feet. A special providence of God protected the children of Israel from this experience during the long journey through the wilderness. "Thy raiment waxed not old upon thee, neither did thy foot swell, these forty years" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',8,4);">De 8:4</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',29,5);">29:5</a>).<P>In the house shoes and sandals were never worn; even the most delicate would put on shoes only when going out (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',28,56);">De 28:56</a>). The shoes were left outside of the house or in a vestibule. This was especially done in the house of God and at the time of prayer, for whenever or wherever that might be, the law was: "Put off thy shoes from off thy feet, for the place whereon thou standest is holy ground" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',3,5);">Ex 3:5</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',5,15);">Jos 5:15</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',7,33);">Ac 7:33</a>). This custom still prevails among the Moslems of our day. Probably it was the idea of defilement through contact with the common ground which gave rise to its moral application by the Preacher, "Keep thy foot when thou goest to the house of God" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',5,1);">Ec 5:1 (Hebrew 4:17)</a>).<P>Nakedness of the feet in public, especially among the wealthier classes, who used to wear shoes or sandals, was a token of mourning (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',24,17);">Eze 24:17</a> and probably also <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',2,25);">Jer 2:25</a> and <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',20,\'2-4\');">Isa 20:2-4</a>). A peculiar ceremony is referred to in <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',25,9,10);">De 25:9-10</a>, whereby a brother-in-law, who refused to perform his duty under the Levirate law, was publicly put to shame. "And his name shall be called in Israel, The house of him that hath his shoe loosed." See also <a onClick="return mV(\'Rth\',4,7,8);">Ru 4:7-8</a>.<P>Numerous are the phrases in which the word "foot" or "feet" is used in Biblical language. "To cover the feet" (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',24,3);">1Sa 24:3</a>) is synonymous with obeying a call of Nature. "To speak with the feet" is expressive of the eloquence of abusive and obscene gesticulation among oriental people, where hands, eyes and feet are able to express much without the use of words (<a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',6,13);">Pr 6:13</a>). "To sit at the feet," means to occupy the place of a learner (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',33,3);">De 33:3</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',10,39);">Lu 10:39</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',22,3);">Ac 22:3</a>). Vanquished enemies had to submit to being trodden upon by the conqueror (a ceremony often represented on Egyptian monuments; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',10,24);">Jos 10:24</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',8,6);">Ps 8:6</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',110,1);">110:1</a>; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',49,23);">Isa 49:23</a>). James warns against an undue humiliation of those who join us in the service of God, even though they be poor or mean-looking, by bidding them to take a lowly place at the feet of the richer members of the congregation (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jam\',2,3);">Jas 2:3</a>). We read of dying Jacob that "he gathered up his feet into the bed," for he had evidently used his bed as a couch, on which he had been seated while delivering his charge to his several sons (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',49,33);">Ge 49:33</a>). "Foot" or "feet" is sometimes used euphemistically for the genitals (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',28,57);">De 28:57</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',16,25);">Eze 16:25</a>). In <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',11,10);">De 11:10</a> an interesting reference is made to some Egyptian mode of irrigating the fields, \'the watering with the foot,\' which mode would be unnecessary in the promised land of Canaan which "drinketh water of the rain of heaven." It is, however, uncertain whether this refers to the water-wheels worked by a treadmill arrangement or whether reference is made to the many tributary channels, which, according to representations on the Egyptian monuments, intersected the gardens and fields and which could be stopped or opened by placing or removing a piece of sod at the mouth of the channel. This was usually done with the foot. Frequently we find references to the foot in expressions connected with journeyings and pilgrimages, which formed so large a part in the experiences of Israel, e.g. <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',91,12);">Ps 91:12</a>, "lest thou dash thy foot against a stone"; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',94,18);">94:18</A>, "My foot slippeth"; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',121,3);">121:3</A>, "He will not suffer thy foot to be moved," and many more. Often the reference is to the "walk," i.e. the moral conduct of life (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',73,2);">Ps 73:2</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',23,11);">Job 23:11</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',31,5);">31:5</a>).<P>Figurative: In the metaphorical language of <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',52,7);">Isa 52:7</a> "the feet" are synonymous with "the coming."``106';
isbe[3506]='Footman`foot\'-man`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=WAR;+WARFARE">WAR</a>`1';
isbe[3507]='Footstool`foot\'-stool (kebhes; hupopodion, "trodden on"): The 15 Scripture references to this term may be classified as literal or figurative. Of the former are the two passages: <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',9,18);">2Ch 9:18</a> and <a onClick="return mV(\'Jam\',2,3);">Jas 2:3</a>. In these the footstool was a sort of step or support for the feet placed before the throne or any pretentious seat.<P>Of figurative uses, there are the following groups:<P>(1) Of the earth: <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',66,1);">Isa 66:1</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',5,35);">Mt 5:35</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',7,49);">Ac 7:49</a>.<P>(2) Of the ark: <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',28,2);">1Ch 28:2</a>.<P>(3) Of the Temple: <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',99,5);">Ps 99:5</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',132,7);">132:7</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Lam\',2,1);">La 2:1</a>; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',60,13);">Isa 60:13</a>.<P>(4) Of heathen enemies subdued by the Messianic King: <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',110,1);">Ps 110:1</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',22,44);">Mt 22:44</a> the King James Version; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',12,36);">Mr 12:36</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',20,43);">Lu 20:43</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',2,35);">Ac 2:35</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Hbr\',1,13);">Heb 1:13</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Hbr\',10,13);">10:13</a>.<P>Thus the uses of this term are mainly metaphorical and symbolic of subjection, either to God as universal Lord or to God\'s Son as King by redemptive right. Compare <a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',15,\'25-27\');">1Co 15:25-27</a>, in which all things, including death, are represented as subject to Christ and placed beneath His feet.``41';
isbe[3508]='For`for (ki (conjunction), le, from \'el (preposition), and various other words. In the New Testament also the words are various, chiefly gar, kai gar, hoti (conjunctions); anti apo eis dia (accusative), epi (dative and accusative), peri (genitive), pros (genitive and accusative), huper (genitive) (prepositions)): the English Revised Version and the American Standard Revised Version give in many cases more literal or more accurate renderings than those in the King James Version.<P>In the New Testament the most important preps. from a doctrinal point of view are anti, "face to face," "over against," "instead," "on behalf of," peri, "around," "about," "concerning," huper, "over," "on behalf of." The first has been claimed as stating the substitutionary nature of Christ\'s sacrifice as contrasted with huper and peri, more frequently used of it. But, although anti in the New Testament often means "instead of," "answering to," it does not necessarily imply substitution. On the other hand, in classical Greek huper is sometimes used in that sense (see Trench, Synonyms). "Here as always the root idea of the preposition, the root idea of the case, and the context must all be considered" (Robertson, Grammar, 124). Anti is found in this connection only in <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',20,28);">Mt 20:28</a>, and <a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',10,45);">Mr 10:45</a>. In <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',26,28);">Mt 26:28</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',14,24);">Mr 14:24</a>, we have peri, also in <a onClick="return mV(\'Hbr\',10,6,8,18,26);">Heb 10:6, 8, 18, 26</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Pe\',3,18);">1Pe 3:18</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Jo\',2,2);">1Joh 2:2</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Jo\',4,10);">4:10</a>. <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',22,19);">Lu 22:19-20</a> has huper, which is the word commonly used by Paul, as in <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',5,6,8);">Ro 5:6, 8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',8,32);">8:32</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',14,15);">14:15</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',15,3);">1Co 15:3</a>, etc., also by John in his Gospel, <a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',6,51);">6:51</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',10,11);">10:11</a>, etc., and <a onClick="return mV(\'1Jo\',3,16);">1Joh 3:16</a>; also <a onClick="return mV(\'Hbr\',2,9);">Heb 2:9</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Hbr\',10,12);">10:12</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Pe\',2,21);">1Pe 2:21</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Pe\',3,18);">3:18</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Pe\',4,1);">4:1</a>; in <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',8,3);">Ro 8:3</a> it is peri.``185';
isbe[3509]='Foray`for\'-a (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',3,22);">2Sa 3:22</a>).`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=WAR; WARFARE">WAR</a>`1';
isbe[3510]='Forbear`for-bar\' (chadhal; anechomai): In the Old Testament chadhal, "to leave off," is the word most frequently translated "forbear" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',23,5);">Ex 23:5</a>, etc.); damam, "to be silent," chasakh, "to keep back," mashakh, "to draw or stretch out," occur once each; the Revised Version (British and American) renders <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',24,17);">Eze 24:17</a> (damam), "Sigh, but not aloud," margin "Hebrew be silent,"; <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',24,11);">Pr 24:11</a> (chasakh), "See that thou hold back," margin "or forbear thou not to deliver," the King James Version "if thou forbear to deliver"; <a onClick="return mV(\'Neh\',9,30);">Ne 9:30</a> (mashakh), "bear" instead of "forbear"; \'aph literally, "breathing," the "nose," hence, from violent breathing, "anger" (\'erekh, "long," understood), and kul "to hold," are translated "forbearing" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',25,15);">Pr 25:15</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',20,9);">Jer 20:9</a>, respectively).<P>In the New Testament we have anechomai, "to hold self back or up," "with longsuffering, forbearing one another" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eph\',4,2);">Eph 4:2</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Col\',3,13);">Col 3:13</a>); aniemi "to send back," the King James Version and the Revised Version (British and American) "forbear threatening\' (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eph\',6,9);">Eph 6:9</a>); pheidomai, "to spare," "but I forbear" (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',12,6);">2Co 12:6</a>); meergazesthai, "not to work," "to forbear working" (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',9,6);">1Co 9:6</a>); stego, "to cover," "conceal": "when I could no longer forbear" (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Th\',3,1,5);">1Th 3:1, 5</a>).``185';
isbe[3511]='Forbearance`for-bar\'-ans (anoche):<P>"Forbearance" (anoche, "a holding back") is ascribed to God (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',2,4);">Ro 2:4</a>, "the riches of his goodness and forbearance and longsuffering"; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',3,25);">3:25</a> the Revised Version (British and American), "the passing over of the sins done aforetime, in the forbearance of God," the King James Version "remission" (margin "passing over") of sins, that are past, through the forbearance of God"); in <a onClick="return mV(\'Phl\',4,5);">Php 4:5</a>, to epieikes is translated by the Revised Version (British and American) "forbearance," margin "gentleness"; it is a Christian grace in likeness to God. "Forbearing" (The King James Version, margin) is substituted by the Revised Version (British and American) for "patient" (anexikakos, "holding up under evil") in <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ti\',2,24);">2Ti 2:24</a>.``185';
isbe[3512]='Forbid`for-bid\' (kala; koluo):<P>Occurs very seldom in the Old Testament except as the rendering of chalilah (see below); it is once the translation of kala\', "to restrain" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',11,28);">Nu 11:28</a>, "Joshua...said My lord Moses forbid them"); twice of tsawah, "to command" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',2,37);">De 2:37</a>, "and wheresoever Yahweh our God forbade us"; <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',4,23);">De 4:23</a>, "Yahweh thy God hath forbidden thee," literally, "commanded"); once of lo\', "not," the Revised Version (British and American) "commanded not to be done" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',5,17);">Le 5:17</a>). In the phrases, "Yahweh forbid" (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',24,6);">1Sa 24:6</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',26,11);">26:11</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',21,13);">1Ki 21:13</a>), "God forbid" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',44,7);">Ge 44:7</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',22,29);">Jos 22:29</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',24,16);">24:16</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',12,23);">1Sa 12:23</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',27,5);">Job 27:5</a>, etc.), "My God forbid it me" (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',11,19);">1Ch 11:19</a>), the word is chalilah, denoting profanation, or abhorrence (rendered, <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',18,25);">Ge 18:25</a> the King James Version, "that be far from thee"); the English Revised Version leaves the expressions unchanged; the American Standard Revised Version substitutes "far be it from me," "thee," etc., except in <a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',14,45);">1Sa 14:45</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',20,2);">20:2</a>, where it is, "Far from it."<P>In the New Testament koluo, "to cut short," "restrain" is the word commonly translated "forbid" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',19,14);">Mt 19:14</a>, "forbid them not," etc.); in <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',6,29);">Lu 6:29</a>, the Revised Version (British and American) has "withhold not"; diakoluo, with a similar meaning, occurs in <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',3,14);">Mt 3:14</a>, "John forbade him," the Revised Version (British and American) "would have hindered him"; akolutos, "uncut off" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',28,31);">Ac 28:31</a>), is translated "none forbidding him." The phrase "God forbid" (me genoito, "let it not be," <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',20,16);">Lu 20:16</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',3,4);">Ro 3:4</a>, etc.) is retained by the Revised Version (British and American), with margin "Be it not so," except in <a onClick="return mV(\'Gal\',6,14);">Ga 6:14</a>, where the text has "Far be it from me"; me genoito is one of the renderings of chalilah in Septuagint. "God forbid" also appears in Apocrypha (1Macc 2:21, the Revised Version (British and American) "Heaven forbid," margin, Greek "may he be propitious," 1Macc 9:10, the Revised Version (British and American) "Let it not be").``185';
isbe[3513]='Forces`for\'-sis (chayil):<P>(1) The word is used as a military term, equivalent to army, in <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',25,23,26);">2Ki 25:23, 26</a> (where the King James Version reads "armies"); <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',17,2);">2Ch 17:2</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',40,7);">Jer 40:7</a>, etc.<P>(2) In <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',60,5,11);">Isa 60:5, 11</a>, it is rendered in the Revised Version (British and American) by "wealth," and in Ob verse <a onClick="return mV(\'Oba\',1,11);">11</a>, by "substance."<P>Two other Hebrew words are also translated "forces" in the King James Version, ma\'amatstsim (<a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',36,19);">Job 36:19</a>), and ma\'oz (<a onClick="return mV(\'Dan\',11,38);">Da 11:38</a>), the latter being rendered in the Revised Version (British and American) "fortresses."`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ARMY">ARMY</a>`1';
isbe[3514]='Ford`ford (ma\'abhar (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',32,22);">Ge 32:22</a>; "pass" (of Michmash), <a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',13,23);">1Sa 13:23</a>; "stroke" (the Revised Version, margin "passing"), <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',30,32);">Isa 30:32</a>); ma\'barah (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',2,7);">Jos 2:7</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',3,28);">Jud 3:28</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',12,5,6);">12:5-6</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',16,2);">Isa 16:2</a> "pass" (of Michmash), <a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',14,4);">1Sa 14:4</a>; "passages" (the Revised Version, margin "fords"), <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',51,32);">Jer 51:32</a>); \'abharah (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',15,28);">2Sa 15:28</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',17,16);">17:16</a>; "ferry-boat" (the Revised Version, margin "convoy"), <a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',19,18);">2Sa 19:18</a>); from \'abhar, "to pass over"; compare Arabic \'abar, "to pass over" and ma\'bar, "a ford"):<P>In the journeyings of the children of Israel, in addition to the miraculous passages of the Red Sea and the Jordan, they had other streams to pass over, especially the Zered (Chisa\') and the Arnon (Maujib) (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',21,12,13);">Nu 21:12-13</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',2,24);">De 2:24</a>). The Jabbok (Zarqa) is frequently referred to, particularly in connection with Jacob (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',32,22);">Ge 32:22</a>). The most frequent references are to the Jordan which, in time of flood, was impassable (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',3,15);">Jos 3:15</a>).<P>The lower Jordan is about 100 ft. wide, and from 5 to 12 ft. deep, so that in the absence of bridges, the places where it was possible to ford were of great importance. The passage of the Jordan is referred to in connection with Jacob (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',32,10);">Ge 32:10</a>), Gideon (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',8,4);">Jud 8:4</a>), the children of Ammon (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',10,9);">Jud 10:9</a>), Abner and his men (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',2,29);">2Sa 2:29</a>), David (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',10,17);">2Sa 10:17</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',17,22);">17:22</a>), Absalom (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',17,24);">2Sa 17:24</a>), and others. Jesus undoubtedly crossed the Jordan, and John is thought to have baptized at the ford of the Jordan near Jericho. The fords of the Jordan are specifically mentioned in <a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',2,7);">Jos 2:7</a> in connection with the pursuit of the spies who were hidden in Rahab\'s house, and in <a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',15,28);">2Sa 15:28</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',17,16);">17:16</a> in connection with the flight of David. In the last two passages we have abharah, the same word which, in the account of David\'s return (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',19,18);">2Sa 19:18</a>), is rendered "ferry-boat" (the Revised Version, margin "convoy").`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=JORDAN">JORDAN</a>`37';
isbe[3515]='Forecast`for-kast\';(vb.) (chashabh):<P>To forecast is both to plan or scheme beforehand and to consider or see beforehand. It is in the first sense that it is used in <a onClick="return mV(\'Dan\',11,24,25);">Da 11:24-25</a> (the King James Version) as the translation of chashabh, "to think," "meditate," "devise," "plot," "He shall forecast his devices (The King James Version, margin "Hebrew think his thoughts") against the strongholds"; "They shall forecast devices against him," the Revised Version (British and American) "devise his devices"; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Nah\',1,9);">Na 1:9</a>, "What do ye devise against Yahweh?" In the second sense, the word occurs in The <span class="noTag">Wisdom of Solomon 17:11</span> the Revised Version (British and American), "Wickedness...always forecasteth the worst lot" (proeilephen), margin "Most authorities read hath added" (proseilephen).``185';
isbe[3516]='Forefather`for\'-fa-ther:<P>(1) \'abh ri\'shon, "first father," "chief father," hence, "early ancestor": "turned back to the iniquities of their forefathers" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',11,10);">Jer 11:10</a>).<P>(2) progonos, "born before," "ancestor": "whom I serve from my forefathers" (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ti\',1,3);">2Ti 1:3</a>). It is translated "parents" (including grandparents) in <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ti\',5,4);">1Ti 5:4</a>: "and to requite their parents."``1';
isbe[3517]='Forefront`for\'-frunt (panim):<P>For "forefront," "front" is now generally used, since "back-front" has gone out of use. "Forefront" is the translation of panim, "face" (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',16,14);">2Ki 16:14</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',40,19);">Eze 40:19</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',47,1);">47:1</a>); of mul panim, "over against the face" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',26,9);">Ex 26:9</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',8,9);">Le 8:9</a>, "And he put the mitre upon his head; also upon the mitre even upon his forefront, did he put the golden plate"; for "upon his forefront" the Revised Version (British and American) has "in front; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',11,15);">2Sa 11:15</a>, "in the forefront of the hottest battle"); of ro\'sh, "head" (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',20,27);">2Ch 20:27</a>); of shen, "tooth" (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',14,5);">1Sa 14:5</a>, "The forefront (The King James Version, margin "Hebrew tooth") of the one was situated northward over against Michmash," the Revised Version (British and American) "The one crag rose up on the north in front of Michmash"); in 1Macc 4:57 margin it is the translation of prosopon, "face": "They decked the forefront of the temple with crowns of gold."<P>The Revised Version (British and American) has "forefront" for "face" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',40,15);">Eze 40:15</a>), "in the forefront of" for "over against" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',22,11);">Jos 22:11</a>).``185';
isbe[3518]='Forego`for-go\'.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=FORGO">FORGO</a>`1';
isbe[3519]='Forehead`for\'-ed (metsach; metopon):<P>(1) In a literal sense the word is used frequently in the Scriptures. Aaron and after him every high priest was to wear on the forehead the golden frontlet having the engraved motto, "Holy to Yahweh" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',28,36,38);">Ex 28:36, 38</a>). The condition of the forehead was an important criterion in the diagnosis of leprosy by the priest (<a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',13,42,43);">Le 13:42-43</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',26,20);">2Ch 26:20</a>). It was in the forehead that brave young David smote Goliath with the stone from his sling (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',17,49);">1Sa 17:49</a>). The faulty translation of the King James Version in <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',16,12);">Eze 16:12</a> has been corrected in the Revised Version (British and American), reference being had in the passage to a nose-ring, not to an ornament of the forehead. While the cutting or tattooing of the body was strictly forbidden to the Israelite on account of the heathen associations of the custom (<a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',19,28);">Le 19:28</a>), we find frequent mention made of markings on the forehead, which were especially used to designate slaves (see Philo, De Monarchia, I) or devotees of a godhead (Lucian, De Syria Dea, 59). In 3Macc 2:29 we read that Ptolemy IV Philopator branded some Jews with the sign of an ivy leaf, marking them as devotees of Bacchus-Dionysos. Possibly we may compare herewith the translation of <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',44,5);">Isa 44:5</a> (Revised Version margin): "And another shall write on his hand, Unto Yahweh" (or Yahweh\'s slave). Very clear is the passage <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',9,4,6);">Eze 9:4, 6</a> (and perhaps <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',31,35);">Job 31:35</a>), where the word used for "mark" is taw, the name of the last letter of the Hebrew alphabet which in its earliest form has the shape of an upright plus sign (Baal Lebanon Inscr; 11th century BC) or of a lying (St Andrew\'s) cross X (Moabite Inscr, 9th century BC), the simplest sign in the old Israelite alphabet, and at the same time the character which in the Greek alphabet represents the X, the initial of Christ. In the New Testament we find a clear echo of the above-mentioned Old Testament passage, the marking of the foreheads of the righteous (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',7,3);">Re 7:3</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',9,4);">9:4</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',14,1);">14:1</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',22,4);">22:4</a>). The godless followers of the beast are marked on the (right) hand and on the forehead (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',13,16);">Re 13:16</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',14,9);">14:9</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',20,4);">20:4</a>), and the apocalyptic woman dressed in scarlet and purple has her name written on her forehead (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',17,5);">Re 17:5</a>).<P>(2) In a metaphorical sense the expression, "a harlot\'s forehead," is used (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',3,3);">Jer 3:3</a>) to describe the shameless apostasy and faithlessness of Israel. Ezekiel speaks of the stiff-necked obstinacy and the persistent unwillingness of Israel to hear the message of Yahweh: "All the house of Israel are of a hard forehead and of a stiff heart" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',3,7);">Jer 3:7</a>), and God makes his prophet\'s "forehead hard...as an adamant harder than flint," whereby an unflinching loyalty to God and a complete disregard of opposition is meant (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',3,8,9);">Jer 3:8-9</a>). Compare the phrase: "to harden the face," under the word <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=FACE">FACE</a>.``106';
isbe[3520]='Foreign Divinities`for\'-in di-vin\'-i-tiz (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',17,18);">Ac 17:18</a> margin).`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=GOD,+STRANGE">GOD, STRANGE</a>`1';
isbe[3521]='Foreigner`for\'-in-er" The translation of nokhri, "unknown," "foreign," frequently rendered "stranger" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',15,3);">De 15:3</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Oba\',1,11);">Ob 1:11</a>); of toshabh, "a settler," "an alien resident" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',12,45);">Ex 12:45</a>; the Revised Version (British and American) "sojourner"; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',25,47);">Le 25:47</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',39,12);">Ps 39:12</a>); of paroikos, "dwelling near," "sojourner" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eph\',2,19);">Eph 2:19</a>, the Revised Version (British and American) sojourners").<P>Revised Version has "foreigner" for "stranger" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',17,15);">De 17:15</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',23,20);">23:20</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',29,22);">29:22</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rth\',2,10);">Ru 2:10</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',15,19);">2Sa 15:19</a>), for "alien" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',14,21);">De 14:21</a>); "the hand of a foreigner" for "a stranger\'s hand" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',22,25);">Le 22:25</a>).`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ALIEN">ALIEN</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=STRANGER+AND+SOJOURNER">STRANGER AND SOJOURNER</a>`1';
isbe[3522]='Foreknow; Foreknowledge`for-no\', for-nol\'-ej:<P>1. Meaning of the Term<P>2. Foreknowledge as Prescience<P>3. Foreknowledge Based on Foreordination<P>4. Foreknowledge as Equivalent to Foreordination<P>LITERATURE<HR /><P>1. Meaning of the Term:<P>The word "foreknowledge" has two meanings. It is a term used in theology to denote the prescience or foresight of God, that is, His knowledge of the entire course of events which are future from the human point of view; and it is also used in the King James Version and the Revised Version (British and American) to translate the Greek words proginoskein and prognosis in the New Testament, in which instances the word "fore-knowledge" approaches closely the idea of fore-ordination.<P>2. Fore-knowledge as Prescience:<P>In the sense of prescience foreknowledge is an aspect of God\'s omniscience (see <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=OMNISCIENCE">OMNISCIENCE</a>). God\'s knowledge, according to the Scripture, is perfect, that is, it is omniscience. It is true that the Scripture makes use of anthropomorphic forms of expression as regards the way in which God obtains knowledge (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',3,8);">Ge 3:8</a>), and sometimes even represents Him as if He did not know certain things (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',11,5);">Ge 11:5</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',18,21);">18:21</a>); nevertheless the constant representation of the Scripture is that God knows everything. This perfect knowledge of God, moreover, is not merely a knowledge which is practically unlimited for all religious purposes, but is omniscience in the strictest sense of the term. In the historical books of the Old Testament the omniscience of God is a constant underlying presupposition when it is said that God watches men\'s actions, knows their acts and words, and discloses to them the future; while in the Psalms, Prophets and Wisdom literature, this Divine attribute becomes an object of reflection, and finds doctrinal expression. It cannot, however, be said that this attribute of God appears only late in the history of special revelation; it is a characteristic of the Biblical idea of God from the very first, and it is only its didactic expression which comes out with especial clearness in the later books. God\'s knowledge, then, is represented as perfect. Since He is free from all limits of space, His omniscience is frequently connected with His omnipresence. This is the thought which underlies the anthropomorphic expressions where God is represented as seeing, beholding and having eyes. God\'s eyes go to and fro throughout the whole earth (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',16,9);">2Ch 16:9</a>), and are every place beholding the evil and the good (<a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',15,3);">Pr 15:3</a>). Even Sheol is naked and open to God\'s sight (<a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',15,11);">Pr 15:11</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',26,6);">Job 26:6</a>). The night and darkness are light to Him, and darkness and light for God are both alike (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',139,12);">Ps 139:12</a>). All animals and fowls are His, and so are known by Him (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',50,11);">Ps 50:11</a>), and as their Creator God knows all the hosts of the heavenly bodies (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',147,4);">Ps 147:4</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',40,26);">Isa 40:26</a>). He knows also the heart of man and its thoughts (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',16,7);">1Sa 16:7</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',8,39);">1Ki 8:39</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',7,9);">Ps 7:9 (Hebrew 10)</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',94,11);">Ps 94:11</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',139,2);">139:2</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',11,20);">Jer 11:20</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',17,9,10);">17:9-10</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',20,12);">20:12</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',11,5);">Eze 11:5</a>). Furthermore, God knows man entirely in all his ways (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',139,\'1-5\');">Ps 139:1-5</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',5,21);">Pr 5:21</a>). He looks from heaven and sees all men (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',11,4);">Ps 11:4</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',14,2);">14:2</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',33,13,14,15);">33:13-15</a>). Evil and sin are also known to God (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',3,11);">Ge 3:11</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',6,5,9,13);">6:5, 9, 13</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',7,20);">2Sa 7:20</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',69,5);">Ps 69:5 (Hebrew 6)</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',16,17);">Jer 16:17</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',18,23);">18:23</a>). In a word, God knows with absolute accuracy all about man (<a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',11,11);">Job 11:11</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',34,21);">34:21</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',33,15);">Ps 33:15</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',5,21);">Pr 5:21</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Hsa\',5,3);">Ho 5:3</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',11,20);">Jer 11:20</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',12,3);">12:3</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',17,9);">17:9</a>f; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',18,23);">18:23</A>). This perfect knowledge finds its classic expression in <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',139,\'1-\');">Ps 139</a>.<P>God is also, according to the Old Testament, free from all limitations of time, so that His consciousness is not in the midst of the stream of the succeeding moments of time, as is the case with the human consciousness. God is not only without beginning or end of days, but with Him a thousand years are as one day. Hence, God knows in one eternal intuition that which for the human consciousness is past, present and future. In a strict sense, therefore, there can be no foreknowledge or prescience with God, and the distinction in God\'s knowledge made by theologians, as knowledge of reminiscence, vision and prescience, is after all an anthropomorphism. Nevertheless this is the only way in which we can conceive of the Divine omniscience in its relation to time, and consequently the Scripture represents the matter as if God\'s knowledge of future events were a foreknowledge or prescience, and God is represented as knowing the past, present and future.<P>It is God\'s knowledge of events which from the human point of view are future that constitutes His foreknowledge in the sense of prescience. God is represented as having a knowledge of the entire course of events before they take place. Such a knowledge belongs to the Scriptural idea of God from the very outset of special revelation. He knows beforehand what Abraham will do, and what will happen to him; He knows beforehand that Pharaoh\'s heart will be hardened, and that Moses will deliver Israel (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',15,13);">Ge 15:13</a>ff; <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',3,19);">Ex 3:19</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',7,4);">7:4</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',11,1);">11:1</a>ff). The entire history of the patriarchal period of revelation exhibits plainly the foreknowledge of God in this sense. In prophecy this aspect of the Divine knowledge is made the subject of explicit assertion, and its religious significance is brought out. Nothing future is hidden from Yahweh (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',41,22);">Isa 41:22</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',42,9);">42:9</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',43,\'9-13\');">43:9-13</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',44,\'6-8\');">44:6-8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',46,10);">46:10</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Dan\',2,22);">Da 2:22</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Amo\',3,7);">Am 3:7</a>), and this foreknowledge embraces the entire course of man\'s life (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',31,15);">Ps 31:15 (Hebrew 16)</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',39,5);">Ps 39:5 (Hebrew 6)</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',139,\'4-6\',16);">Ps 139:4-6, 16</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',14,5);">Job 14:5</a>). These passages from Isaiah show that it is from the occurrence of events in accordance with Yahweh\'s prediction that the Prophet will prove his foreknowledge; and that in contrast with the worshippers of idols which are taken by surprise, Israel is warned of the future by the omniscient Yahweh.<P>In the New Testament likewise, God\'s omniscience is explicitly affirmed. Jesus taught that God knows the hidden secrets of man\'s heart (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',16,15);">Lu 16:15</a>); and this is also the teaching of the apostles (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',1,24);">Ac 1:24</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',15,8);">15:8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',2,10);">1Co 2:10</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',3,20);">3:20</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Th\',2,4);">1Th 2:4</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',2,23);">Re 2:23</a>). In a word, according to the author of the Epistle to the He, everything is open to God, so that He is literally omniscient (<a onClick="return mV(\'Hbr\',4,13);">Heb 4:13</a>). And as in the Old Testament, so also in the New Testament, foreknowledge in the sense of prescience is ascribed to God. Jesus asserts a foreknowledge by God of that which is hidden from the Son (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',13,32);">Mr 13:32</a>), and James asserts that all God\'s works are foreknown by Him (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',15,18);">Ac 15:18</a>). Moreover, the many references in the New Testament to the fulfillment of prophecy all imply that the New Testament writers ascribed foreknowledge, in this sense of foresight, to God.<P>Denials of the Divine foreknowledge, in this sense of prescience, have been occasioned, not by exegetical considerations, but by the supposed conflict of this truth with human freedom. It was supposed that in order to be free, an event must be uncertain and contingent as regards the fact of its futurition, and that too in the most absolute sense, that is, from the Divine as well as the human point of view. Hence, the Socinians and some Arminians denied the foreknowledge of God. It was supposed either that God voluntarily determines not to foresee the free volitions of man, or else that since God\'s omniscience is simply the knowledge of all that is knowable, it does not embrace the free acts of man which are by their nature uncertain and so unknowable. And upon this view of freedom, this denial of God\'s foreknowledge was logically necessary. If the certainty of events with respect to the fact of their futurition is inconsistent with freedom, then human freedom does conflict with God\'s foreknowledge, since God cannot know future events as certainly future unless they actually are so. Since, therefore, the Divine foreknowledge is quite as inconsistent with this view of freedom as is the Divine foreordination, the view of those who regard God as a mere onlooker on the course of future events which are supposed to be entirely independent of His purpose and control, does not help matters in the least. If God foreknows future events as certain, then they must be certain, and if so, then the certainty of their actually occurring must depend either upon God\'s decree and providential control, or else upon a fate independent of God. It was to escape these supposed difficulties that the doctrine known as scientia media was propounded. It was supposed that God has a knowledge of events as conditionally future, that is, events neither merely possible nor certainly future, but suspended upon conditions undetermined by God. But this hypothesis is of no help and is not true. Besides being contrary to the Scripture in its idea that many events lie outside the decree of God, and that God must wait upon man in His government of the world, there is really no such class of events as this theory asserts. If God foreknows that the conditions on which they are suspended will be fulfilled, then these events belong to the class of events which are certainly future; whereas if God does not know whether or not the conditions will be fulfilled by man, then His foreknowledge is denied, and these events in question belong to the class of those merely possible. Nor do the Scripture passages to which appeal is made, such as <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',11,6);">Ge 11:6</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',3,19);">Ex 3:19</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',7,3,4);">De 7:3-4</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',23,\'10-13\');">1Sa 23:10-13</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',12,8);">2Sa 12:8</a>, etc., afford a basis for this doctrine. The Scripture of course recognizes that God has put all things in relations of mutual dependence, and speaks of what can or cannot happen under such and such conditions; but none of these passages assert or imply that the events are suspended upon conditions which are either unknown or undetermined by God.<P>3. Foreknowledge Based on Foreordination:<P>God\'s foreknowledge, according to the Scripture teaching, is based upon His plan or eternal purpose, which embraces everything that comes to pass. God is never represented as a mere onlooker seeing the future course of events, but having no part in it. That God has such a plan is the teaching of the entire Scripture. It is implied in the Old Testament conception of God as an Omnipotent Person governing all things in accordance with His will. This idea is involved in the names of God in the patriarchal revelation, \'El, \'Elohim, \'El Shadday, and in the prophetic name Yahweh of Hosts. This latter name teaches not only God\'s infinite power and glory, but also makes Him known as interposing in accordance with His sovereign will and purpose in the affairs of this world, and as having also the spiritual powers of the heavenly world at His disposal for the execution of His eternal purpose. Hence, this idea of God comes to signify the omnipotent Ruler of the universe (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',24,10);">Ps 24:10</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',6,3);">Isa 6:3</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',51,5);">51:5</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',54,5);">54:5</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',10,16);">Jer 10:16</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Amo\',9,5);">Am 9:5</a>; compare Oehler, Theol. of the Old Testament, English translation, II, 280).<P>Not only in this conception of God as omnipotent and sovereign Ruler is the thought of His eternal plan evolved; it is explicitly asserted throughout the whole Old Testament. The purpose of God as determining human history in the Book of Genesis lies clearly upon the surface of the narrative, as, for example, in the history of Abraham and of Joseph. And where there is no abstract statement of this truth, it is evident that the writer regards every event as but the unfolding of the purpose of God. In the Psalms, Prophets, and Wisdom literature, this truth finds explicit and reiterated assertion. Yahweh has an eternal purpose (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',33,11);">Ps 33:11</a>), and this purpose will certainly come to pass (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',14,27);">Isa 14:27</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',43,13);">43:13</a>). This purpose includes all events and renders certain their occurrence (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',14,24);">Isa 14:24</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',40,10);">40:10</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',46,9,10);">46:9-10</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Zec\',1,6);">Zec 1:6</a>). In the Wisdom literature the ethical character of this plan is dwelt upon, as well as its all-embracing character, and the certainty of its fulfillment (<a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',16,4,33);">Pr 16:4, 33</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',19,21);">19:21</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',20,24);">20:24</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',28,23);">Job 28:23</a>). The providential control wherewith Yahweh executes this plan includes the heart of man (<a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',21,1);">Pr 21:1</a>).<P>The New Testament likewise regards all history as but the unfolding of God\'s eternal purpose (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',4,28);">Ac 4:28</a>), which includes man\'s salvation (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eph\',1,4,5);">Eph 1:4-5</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ti\',1,9);">2Ti 1:9</a>), the provision of Christ as Saviour (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Pe\',1,20);">1Pe 1:20</a>), and the good works of the Christian (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eph\',2,10);">Eph 2:10</a>).<P>See <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=PREDESTINATION">PREDESTINATION</a>.<P>Now while the writers of the Old Testament and the New Testament do not write in an abstract or philosophical manner nor enter into metaphysical explanations of the relation between God\'s foreknowledge and foreordination, it is perfectly evident that they had a clear conception upon this subject. Although anthropomorphisms are used in regard to the manner in which God knows, He is never conceived as if He obtained His knowledge of the future as a mere onlooker gazing down the course of events in time. The idea that the omnipotent Creator and sovereign Ruler of the universe should govern the world and form His plan as contingent and dependent upon a mere foresight of events outside His purpose and control is not only contrary to the entire Scriptural idea of God\'s sovereignty and omnipotence, but is also contrary to the Scriptural idea of God\'s foreknowledge which is always conceived as dependent upon His sovereign purpose. According to the Scriptural conception, God foreknows because He has foreordained all things, and because in His providence He will certainly bring all to pass. His foreknowledge is not a dependent one which must wait upon events, but is simply the knowledge which God has of His own eternal purpose. Dillmann has called this "a productive foreknowledge" (Handbuch d. attest. Theol., 251). This is not exactly correct. The Old Testament does not conceive God\'s foreknowledge as "producing" or causing events. But when Dillmann says that in the Old Testament there is no hint of an "idle foreknowledge" on God\'s part, he is giving expression to the truth that in the Old Testament God\'s foreknowledge is based upon His foreordination and providential control of all things. The Divine foreknowledge, therefore, depends upon the Divine purpose which has determined the world plan (<a onClick="return mV(\'Amo\',3,7);">Am 3:7</a>), and all its details (<a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',28,26,27);">Job 28:26-27</a>). Before man is born God knows him and chooses him for his work (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',1,5);">Jer 1:5</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',23,13,14);">Job 23:13-14</a>), and God\'s thorough knowledge of man in <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',139,\'1-\');">Ps 139</a> is made to rest upon the fact that God has determined man\'s lot beforehand (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',139,\'14-16\');">Ps 139:14-16</a>).<P>The same thing is true of the New Testament teaching on this subject. The Divine foreknowledge is simply God\'s knowledge of His own eternal purpose. This is especially clear in those cases where God\'s eternal purpose of redemption through Christ is represented as a mystery which is known by God and which can be known by man only when it pleases God to reveal it (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eph\',1,9);">Eph 1:9</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eph\',3,4,9);">3:4, 9</a>).<P>4. Foreknowledge as Equivalent to Foreordination:<P>While, therefore, the foreknowledge of God in the sense of prescience is asserted in the New Testament, this is not the meaning of the term when used to translate the Greek words proginoskein and prognosis. These words which are translated in the King James Version and the Revised Version (British and American) by the word "foreknowledge," and once by the word "foreordain" (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Pe\',1,20);">1Pe 1:20</a> the King James Version), mean much more than mere intellectual foresight or prescience. Both the verb and the noun approach the idea of foreordination and are closely connected with that idea in the passages where these words occur. Thus, in Peter\'s speeches in Acts the predestination which finds expression in <a onClick="return mV(\'1Pe\',4,18);">1Pe 4:18</a> is practically identified with the term prognosis in <a onClick="return mV(\'1Pe\',2,23);">2:23</a>. Everything which happened to Jesus took place in accordance with "the determinate counsel and foreknowledge of God," so that nothing happened except that which God had foreordained. In this verse the term foreknowledge is an expansion of the idea of God\'s "counsel" or plan, regarding it as an intelligent prearrangement, the idea of foreknowledge being assimilated to that of foreordination. The same idea is found in <a onClick="return mV(\'1Pe\',1,20);">1Pe 1:20</a>. Here the apostle speaks of Christ as a lamb "foreordained" by God before the foundation of the world. The Greek verb proegnosmenou, meaning literally, "foreknown" (as in the Revised Version (British and American)) is translated "foreordained" in the King James Version. It is evidently God\'s foreordination of Jesus as Saviour which Peter has in mind. Also in <a onClick="return mV(\'1Pe\',1,2);">1Pe 1:2</a> those to whom the apostle is writing are characterized as "elect according to the foreknowledge (prognosis) of God," where the election is based on the "foreknowledge." By the prognosis or foreknowledge, however, far more is meant than prescience. It has the idea of a purpose which determines the course of the Divine procedure. If it meant simply prevision of faith or love or any quality in the objects of the election, Peter would not only flatly contradict Paul (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',9,11);">Ro 9:11</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eph\',1,3,4);">Eph 1:3-4</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ti\',1,9);">2Ti 1:9</a>); but also such a rendering would conflict with the context of this passage, because the objects of election are chosen "unto obedience and sprinkling of the blood of...Christ," so that their new obedience and relation to Christ are determined by their election by God, which election springs from a "foreknowledge" which therefore cannot mean a mere prescience.<P>In view of the fact that there was a classical use of the simple verb ginoskein in the sense of "resolve," and more especially of the fact that this word is used in the New Testament to denote an affectionate or loving regard or approbation in accordance with a common use of the Hebrew yadha\' (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',7,23);">Mt 7:23</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',8,3);">1Co 8:3</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Gal\',4,9);">Ga 4:9</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ti\',2,19);">2Ti 2:19</a>), there is nothing arbitrary in giving it this sense when compounded with the preposition pro when the context clearly demands it, as it does in the above passage (compare Johnstone, Commentary on Peter in the place cited.: per contra Meyer on passages in Acts and Romans). The word prognosis is, however, discriminated from "predestination." It is that loving regard in God from which the Divine election springs, which election Peter evidently regarded as sovereign, since sanctification is only a confirmation of it (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Pe\',1,10);">2Pe 1:10</a>), and stumbling and disobedience are referred to \'appointment to unbelief\' (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Pe\',2,8);">1Pe 2:8</a>). Here, then, we have a pregnant use of foreknowledge in which it is assimilated to the idea of purpose, and denotes a sovereign and loving regard.<P>The word prognosis is also found in this sense in the writings of Paul, in cases where it is manifestly impossible to regard it as a mere intellectual foresight, not only because of Paul\'s doctrine that election is absolutely sovereign (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eph\',1,3,4);">Eph 1:3-4</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',9,11);">Ro 9:11</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ti\',1,9);">2Ti 1:9</a>), but also because of the contexts in which the term occurs.<P>In <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',8,29,30);">Ro 8:29-30</a> the word "foreknow" occurs in immediate connection with God\'s predestination of the objects of salvation. Those whom God foreknew, He also did predestinate to be conformed to the image of His son. Now the foreknowledge in this case cannot mean a mere prescience or foresight of faith (Meyer, Godet) or love (Weiss) in the subjects of salvation, which faith or love is supposed to determine the Divine predestination. This would not only contradict Paul\'s view of the absolutely sovereign and gracious character of election, but is diametrically opposed to the context of this passage. These verses form a part of the encouragement which Paul offers his readers for their troubles, including their own inward weakness. The apostle tells them that they may be sure that all things work together for good to them that love God; and these are defined as being those whom God has called in accordance with His purpose. Their love to God is evidently their love as Christians, and is the result of a calling which itself follows from an eternal purpose, so that their Christian love is simply the means by which they may know that they have been the subjects of this calll. They have not come within the sphere of God\'s love by their own choice, but have been "called" into this relationship by God, and that in accordance with an eternal purpose on His part.<P>What follows, therefore, must have as its motive simply to unfold and ground this assurance of salvation by tracing it all back to the "foreknowledge" of God. To regard this foreknowledge as contingent upon anything in man would thus be in flat contradiction with the entire context of the passage as well as its motive. The word "foreknowledge" here evidently has the pregnant sense which we found it to have in Peter. Hence, those whom God predestinates, calls, justifies and glorifies are just those whom He has looked upon with His sovereign love. To assign any other meaning to "foreknowledge" here would be out of accord with the usage of the term elsewhere in the New Testament when it is put in connection with predestination, and would contradict the purpose for which Paul introduces the passage, that is, to assure his readers that their ultimate salvation depends, not on their weakness, but on God\'s sovereign love and grace and power.<P>It is equally impossible to give the word prognosis any other sense in the other passage where Paul uses it. In <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',11,2);">Ro 11:2</a>, speaking of the Jews, Paul says that "God did not cast off his people which he foreknew." It is quite impossible to regard this as meaning that God had a foresight or mere prevision of some quality in Israel which determined His choice of them, not only because it is the teaching of the entire Scripture that God\'s choice of Israel was sovereign and gracious, and not only because of the actual history of Israel, but also because of the context. Paul says that it would be absurd to suppose that God had cast off His people because He foreknew them, His foreknowledge of them being adduced as a ground for His not casting them off. Hence, the argument would have no force if anything in Israel, foreseen by God, were supposed to ground an assurance that He had not cast them off, because the context is full of the hardness of heart and unbelief of Israel. The foreknowledge here has evidently the same sense as in the former passage.<P>Foreknowledge, therefore, in the New Testament is more than mere prescience. It is practically identical with the Divine decree in two instances, and in the other places where the term occurs it denotes the sovereign loving regard out of which springs God\'s predestination or election of men to salvation.<P>See <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=OMNISCIENCE">OMNISCIENCE</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=PREDESTINATION">PREDESTINATION</A>.<P>LITERATURE.<P>Besides the Commentaries on the appropriate passages, especially those on Isaiah, see Dillmann, Handbuch d. alttest. Theol., 249-52; H. Schultz, Alttest. Theol., 417, 421; H Cremer, Die christliche Lehre volume den Eigenschaften Gottes, Beltrage zur Forderung christl. Theol., I, 93-101; Stewart, article "Foreknowledge," HDB, II, 51-53. Considerable Biblical as well as historical material will be found in works on systematic theology, such as Bohl, Dogmatik, 54-59; Bavinck, Gereformeerde Dogmatik2 I, 182-95. For a history of the discussion of the problem of foreknowledge and freedom see J. Muller, Die christl. Lehre volume der Sunde, III,2,2.<P>See also literature under <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=OMNISCIENCE">OMNISCIENCE</A>.<P>On the relation of foreknowledge and foreordination, and the meaning of prognosis, see K. Muller, Die gottliche Zuvorsehung und Erwahlung, 37f; 81f; Pfleiderer, Paulinismus2, 268f; Urchristentum, 289; Gcnnrich, Studien zur Paulinischen Heilsordnung, S. K.,1898,377f; and on the meaning of proginoskein in <span class="noTag">Ro 8:29</SPAN> see especially pp. 382-95; also Cremer, Bibl.-theol. Worterb., 263-65; Beyschlag, Neutest. Theol., II, 109; B. Weiss, Bio. Theol. of New Testament, English translation, I, 205f; II, 6; H. Holtzmann, Lehrbuch d. neutest. Theol., II, 165f; B.B. Warfield, article "Predestination," HDB, IV, 52-57. See also discussions of the meaning of proginoskein in the Commentaries on 1 Peter and Romans, especially Fritzsche on <span class="noTag">Ro 8:29</SPAN>, and Johnstone on <span class="noTag">1Pe 1:2</SPAN>.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=PREDESTINATION">PREDESTINATION</a>`72';
isbe[3523]='Foreordain; Forordination`for-or-dan\', for-or-di-na\'-shun:<P>The word "foreordain" is uniformly used in the Revised Version (British and American) to render the Greek proorizo, in the passages where this verb occurs (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',4,28);">Ac 4:28</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',8,29,30);">Ro 8:29-30</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',2,7);">1Co 2:7</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eph\',1,\'5-11\');">Eph 1:5-11</a>). In the passages in Romans and Ephesians it takes the place of the King James Version word "predestinate," a return to the usage of the older English versions The word has simply the sense of determining beforehand. It is thus kindred in meaning with a number of other New Testament words expressing the idea of Divine purpose, as "foreknow" (in pregnant sense, <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',2,23);">Ac 2:23</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',8,29);">Ro 8:29</a>, etc.); "determine" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',17,26);">Ac 17:26</a>); "appoint" (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Pe\',2,8);">1Pe 2:8</a>). Foreordination, in the widest sense, is coextensive with the sphere of God\'s universal providence, being but another name for that Divine plan, purpose or counsel which embraces all things, great and small (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',10,29,30);">Mt 10:29-30</a>), that happen in Nature, or fall out in human life. Man\'s free actions are not regarded in Scripture as excluded from it (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',2,28);">Ac 2:28</a>). Foreordination, at the same time, is not to be conceived of as in any way overriding, or doing violence to, human freedom. Man acts freely, as Nature acts necessarily, but it is God who appoints the time, place and circumstances of the free act, permits its happening, and overrules it and its issues for the furthering of His own wise and holy ends. See <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=PROVIDENCE">PROVIDENCE</a>. Foreordination in the sphere of grace has respect to the choice, calling and blessing of those who, through faith, are made partakers of eternal life (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',8,29,30);">Ro 8:29-30</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eph\',1,5);">Eph 1:5, 11</a>). In this, its soteriological aspect, the subject is considered in special articles.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=CHOOSE">CHOOSE</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ELECTION">ELECTION</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=PREDESTINATION">PREDESTINATION</a>`132';
isbe[3524]='Forepart`for\'-part: The translation of panim, "face" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',28,27);">Ex 28:27</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',39,20);">39:20</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',6,20);">1Ki 6:20</a>, the Revised Version (British and American) "within"; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',42,7);">Eze 42:7</a>, the Revised Version (British and American) "before"), and of prora, the forward part of a ship, the prow (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',27,41);">Ac 27:41</a>, "the forepart stuck fast," the Revised Version (British and American) "the foreship struck").<P>ARV has "its forepart into" for "with his face towards" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Joe\',2,20);">Joe 2:20</a> margin "with its forepart"); "in the forepart thereof" for "before it" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',28,25);">Ex 28:25</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',39,18);">39:18</a>).``1';
isbe[3525]='Forerunner`for-run\'-er (prodromos):<P>This word occurs but once in the Bible: "Whither as a forerunner Jesus entered for us" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Hbr\',6,20);">Heb 6:20</a>). The word signifies one who comes in advance to a place where the rest are to follow, or one who is sent on before as a scout to take observations. In this sense Christ is our forerunner for He has gone into heaven to prepare a place for His people into which He will eventually lead them. The idea of a forerunner is peculiar to the Christian dispensation. The Old Testament Levitical economy knew nothing of such. The high priest was a representative, not a forerunner: where he led, namely, into the Holy of Holies, the people could not follow. He was not the pioneer of the people; Christ is. Christ goes nowhere but where His people may follow. He is the file-leader (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Hbr\',12,2);">Heb 12:2</a>, "the author...of faith"). He goeth before His people to prepare the way for them, to open the gates of heaven by His atoning blood and priestly intercession. The believer is led into full fellowship with God through Jesus Christ.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=JOHN+THE+BAPTIST">JOHN THE BAPTIST</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=RUNNER">RUNNER</a>`53';
isbe[3526]='Foresail`for\'sal, for\'-s\'-l (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',27,40);">Ac 27:40</a>).`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=SHIPS+AND+BOATS">SHIPS AND BOATS</a>`1';
isbe[3527]='Foreship`for\'-ship (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',27,30);">Ac 27:30</a>).`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=FOREPART">FOREPART</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=SHIPS+AND+BOATS">SHIPS AND BOATS</a>`1';
isbe[3528]='Foreskin`for\'-skin (\'orlah; akrobustia, often euphemistically translated "uncircumcision"):<P>(1) In the literal sense the word is frequently mentioned owing to the rite of circumcision in vogue in Israel since the days of Abraham (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',17,\'9-14\');">Ge 17:9-14</a>) and among several other peoples of antiquity and modern times. The act of circumcision is represented in the temple of Khonsu, a medical deity, at Karnak. Among the Jews of antiquity circumcision had to be performed by means of a flint or stone knife (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',4,25);">Ex 4:25</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',5,2,3);">Jos 5:2-3</a>) on the eighth day after birth (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',17,12);">Ge 17:12</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',21,4);">21:4</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',12,3);">Le 12:3</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',2,21);">Lu 2:21</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Phl\',3,5);">Php 3:5</a>), even if this day was the Sabbath (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',7,23);">Joh 7:23</a>).<P>Very early we find the practice one of which the descendants of Abraham became proud (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',34,14);">Ge 34:14</a>), so that we see the uncircumcised despised and scorned (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',17,26);">1Sa 17:26</a>), and in the time of oppression under King Antiochus Epiphanes many Israelites suffered martyrdom rather than give up the distinctive sign of their people (1Macc 1:48,60,61; 2Macc 6:10). Among the Arabs and all Mohammedans the custom of circumcision prevails from pre-Islamic times, for it is nowhere ordered in the Koran, and the appellation "uncircumcised" ghalaf)is considered the greatest possible insult.<P>A peculiar martial custom is mentioned in <a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',18,25,27);">1Sa 18:25, 27</a> (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',3,14);">2Sa 3:14</a>), where Saul is represented as asking "a hundred foreskins of the Philistines" as a dowry from David for the hand of Michal. This does not seem to have been an exceptional booty in war, especially if it meant that no very careful operation was expected to be performed, but the act became practically equivalent to extermination. We find in Egyptian history at the time of Ramses III, that an invasion into Egypt had been made by several Libyan tribes (see Diimichen, Histor. Inschr., I, plates I-VI, and II, plates 47ff). The Egyptian army sent against the invaders defeated them and returned with a large number of karnatha which is a transcription into hieroglyphics of the Semitic word, qarenoth, the word being used euphemistically as is proven by the accompanying determinative sign of a phallus. See Chabas, Etudes sur l\'antiquite historique d\'apres lee sources egyptienne, etc., 234; Bondi, Hebr.-Phoen. Lehnworte im Egyptischen, Leipzig,1886,72-74. <P>(2) Metaphorically the word is used in a variety of ways:<p>(a) In the sense of "unlawful," "forbidden as food," "taboo." The fruit of newly planted trees was not to be eaten (<a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',19,\'23-25\');">Le 19:23-25</a>).<p>(b) In the sense of "obstinacy," "opposition to God\'s law." The rite of circumcision meant submission under the law. While an outward form could not be identical with an inward attitude toward God, the use of the word "circumcision" was soon extended to that of purity and obedience of the heart (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',10,16);">De 10:16</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',30,6);">30:6</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Col\',2,11);">Col 2:11</a>, where this circumcision is called a "circumcision not made with hands,...the circumcision of Christ"). The uselessness of outward circumcision, which does not include obedience and purity, is shown by Paul (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',2,25);">Ro 2:25</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',7,18);">1Co 7:18</a>; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',7,51);">Ac 7:51</a>).<p>(c) In the sense of "Gentiles," "non-Israelites" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gal\',2,7);">Ga 2:7</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eph\',2,11);">Eph 2:11</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Col\',3,11);">Col 3:11</a>).`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=CIRCUMCISION">CIRCUMCISION</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=CONCISION">CONCISION</a>`106';
isbe[3529]='Forest`for\'-est:<P>(1) choresh (compare proper name Harosheth), <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',27,4);">2Ch 27:4</a>. In <a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',23,15);">1Sa 23:15</a>ff translated "wood"; in <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',17,9);">Isa 17:9</a>, "wood"; in <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',31,3);">Eze 31:3</a>, "forest-like shade." Applied to any thick growth of vegetation but not necessarily so extensive as (3).<P>(2) pardec: <a onClick="return mV(\'Neh\',2,8);">Ne 2:8</a>, margin "park"; <a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',2,5);">Ec 2:5</a>, the King James Version "orchards," the Revised Version (British and American) "parks"; <a onClick="return mV(\'Sgs\',4,13);">So 4:13</a>, English Versions of the Bible "orchard," the Revised Version, margin "paradise." A word of Persian origin signifying probably an enclosure.<P>See <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=PARADISE">PARADISE</a>.<P>(3) ya\'ar from root meaning "rugged"; compare Arabic wa\'ar, "a rugged, stony region." It is sometimes rendered "forest" and sometimes (but less often in the Revised Version (British and American)) "wood." It is used of certain definite wooded tracts: "the forest in Arabia" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',21,13);">Isa 21:13</a>, margin "thickets"); "the forest of Carmel" (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',19,23);">2Ki 19:23</a> the King James Version, the Revised Version (British and American) "of his fruitful field"); "the forest of Hereth" (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',22,5);">1Sa 22:5</a>); "the forest of Lebanon" (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',7,2);">1Ki 7:2</a>f; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',10,21);">10:17-21</A>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',9,\'16-20\');">2Ch 9:16-20</a>); "the forest of Ephraim," east of the Jordan (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',18,6,8,17);">2Sa 18:6, 8, 17</a>). The word ya\'ar appears also in well-known Kiriath-jearim, "the city of forests," and Mt. Jearim (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',15,10);">Jos 15:10</a>). Among numerous other references the following may be cited: <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',19,5);">De 19:5</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',17,15,18);">Jos 17:15, 18</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',16,33);">1Ch 16:33</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',2,24);">2Ki 2:24</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',80,13);">Ps 80:13</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',83,14);">83:14</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',96,12);">96:12</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',132,6);">132:6</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',2,6);">Ec 2:6</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Sgs\',2,3);">So 2:3</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',7,2);">1Sa 7:2</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',14,25,26);">14:25-26</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',4,29);">Jer 4:29</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',46,23);">46:23</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',34,29);">Eze 34:29</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mic\',3,12);">Mic 3:12</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mic\',7,14);">7:14</a>.<P>(4) cebhakh, from root meaning "to interweave." A "thicket" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',22,13);">Ge 22:13</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',4,7);">Jer 4:7</a>); "thicket of trees" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',74,5);">Ps 74:5</a>); "thickets of the forest" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',9,18);">Isa 9:18</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',10,34);">10:34</a>).<P>(5) \'adbhim, "thicket" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',4,29);">Jer 4:29</a>).<P>From many references it is evident that Palestine had in Old Testament times much more extensive forests and woodlands than today.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=BOTANY">BOTANY</a>`117';
isbe[3530]='Forest of Ephraim``<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=EPHRAIM">EPHRAIM</a>`1';
isbe[3531]='Foretell; Foretold`for-tel\', for-told\':The King James Version occurrences of these words in the New Testament represent as many Greek terms, and are in each case rendered differently in Revised Version:<P>(1) <a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',13,23);">Mr 13:23</a> (proeipon), the Revised Version (British and American) "told beforehand";<P>(2) <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',3,24);">Ac 3:24</a> (prokataggello), the Revised Version (British and American) simply "told";<P>(3) <a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',13,2);">2Co 13:2</a> (prolego), the Revised Version (British and American) "said beforehand," margin "plainly"; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'1Th\',3,4);">1Th 3:4</a>.<P>The foretelling of future events is claimed in the Old Testament as a prerogative of Yahweh (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',41,22,23);">Isa 41:22-23</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',42,9);">42:9</a>, etc.; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',18,22);">De 18:22</a>).`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=PROPHECY">PROPHECY</a>`1';
isbe[3532]='Forfeit`for\'-fit (charam):<P>"Forfeit" (from forisfacere, "to act beyond") implies loss through transgression or non-observance of some law or rule. The word occurs only once as the translation of charam, "to shut in," frequently to devote or consecrate a person or thing to God beyond redemption (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',27,28,29);">Le 27:28-29</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mic\',4,13);">Mic 4:13</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Ezr\',10,8);">Ezr 10:8</a>, "That whosoever came not within three days,...all his substance should be forfeited, and himself separated from the assembly of the captivity," King James Version margin, the American Revised Version, margin and the Revised Version (British and American) "devoted"; compare 1Esdras 9:4, "Their cattle should be seized to the use of the temple" (anieroo, "to consecrate," "devote"); <span class="noTag">6:32</a>, "all his goods seized for the king" (ta huparchonia autou einai (eis) basilika)).<P>The Revised Version (British and American) has "forfeited" (qadhesh, "consecrated,\'; "devoted") for "defiled" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',22,9);">De 22:9</a>), margin "Hebrew consecrated"; "forfeit his life" for "lose his own soul" (psuche) (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',16,26);">Mt 16:26</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',8,36);">Mr 8:36</a>); "lose or forfeit his own self" for "lose himself or be cast away" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',9,25);">Lu 9:25</a>, heauton de apolesas e zemiotheis; zemioo is the Septuagint for \'anash, "to be mulcted," or "fined," <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',21,22);">Ex 21:22</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',22,19);">De 22:19</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',17,26);">Pr 17:26</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',19,19);">19:19</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',21,11);">21:11</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',22,3);">22:3</a>); Weymouth renders <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',9,25);">Lu 9:25</a>, "to have lost or forfeited his own self" (or "had to pay his own self<6C>his own existence<63>as a fine"); in the other instances of zemioo (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',3,15);">1Co 3:15</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Phl\',3,8);">Php 3:8</a>), the King James Version and the Revised Version (British and American) render "suffer loss," "suffered...loss"; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',7,9);">2Co 7:9</a> the King James Version, "receive damage."``185';
isbe[3533]='Forge; Forger`forj, for\'-jer (Taphal):<P>"Forgers of lies" occurs in Job\'s reply to his comforters (<a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',13,4);">13:4</a>; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',14,17);">14:17</a>); the word is the translation of Taphal, "to patch," "lay on," "besmear," hence, to impute, overcharge, etc.; in <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',119,69);">Ps 119:69</a>, "forged" occurs with a similar meaning: "The proud have forged a lie against me" (compare Sirach 51:2). "Forger," in the sense of "one who forges, makes, anything," is the Revised Version (British and American) rendering of latas "to smite," or "hammer," in <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',4,22);">Ge 4:22</a> King James Version: "Tubal-cain, an instructor of every artificer in brass and iron," the Revised Version (British and American) "the forger of every cutting instrument of brass and iron," margin "an instructor of every artificer of copper and iron."``185';
isbe[3534]='Forget; Forgetful`for-get\', for-get\'-ful (shakhach; epilanthanomai):<P>"Forget" is to fail to hold in mind, and the forgetfulness may be either innocent or blameworthy. In the Old Testament the word is most frequently used as translation of shakhach in a blameworthy sense: to forget the covenant, the law, Yahweh their God (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',4,9,23,31);">De 4:9, 23, 31</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',6,12);">6:12</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',3,7);">Jud 3:7</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',12,9);">1Sa 12:9</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',44,20);">Ps 44:20</a>, etc.). In an innocent or neutral, sometimes good, sense it is used in <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',27,45);">Ge 27:45</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',24,19);">De 24:19</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',9,27);">Job 9:27</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',11,16);">11:16</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',24,20);">24:20</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',102,4);">Ps 102:4</a>, etc. It is also used of God forgetting or not seeming to care (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',9,12);">Ps 9:12</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',10,11,12);">10:11-12</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',13,1);">13:1</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',42,9);">42:9</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',77,9);">77:9</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',49,15);">Isa 49:15</a>, etc.). To "forget" sometimes means to forsake (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',45,10);">Ps 45:10</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',74,19);">74:19</a>, etc.).<P>In the New Testament epilanthanomai is used of simple forgetting (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',16,5);">Mt 16:5</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',8,14);">Mr 8:14</a>, etc.; in <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',12,6);">Lu 12:6</a> the sense of care is implied); <a onClick="return mV(\'Phl\',3,13);">Php 3:13</a>, "forgetting the things which are behind," has the force of leaving behind. "Forgetful" in <a onClick="return mV(\'Jam\',1,25);">Jas 1:25</a> is epilesmone, the Revised Version (British and American) "a hearer that forgetteth." "Forgetfulness" <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',88,12);">Ps 88:12</a>, "the land of forgetfulness," is a synonym for Sheol, where all forget and are forgotten. the Revised Version (British and American) has "forget not" for "be ignorant of" (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Pe\',3,8);">2Pe 3:8</a>; similarly <a onClick="return mV(\'2Pe\',3,5);">2Pe 3:5</a>).``185';
isbe[3535]='Forgiveness`for-giv\'-nes (kaphar, nasa\', calach; apoluein charizesthai, aphesis paresis):<P>1. Etymology<P>2. Pagan and Jewish Ideas<P>3. The Teaching of Christ<P>4. Conditions of Forgiveness<P>5. The Offended Party<P>6. Divine and Human Forgiveness<P>7. Forgiveness and Justification<P>8. Old Testament Teaching<P>9. Limitations of Forgiveness<P>10. Christ\'s Power to Forgive Sins<P>11. The Need of an Atonement<P>12. The New Testament Doctrine of Atonement<hr /><P>1. Etymology:<P>Of the seven words, three Hebrew and four Greek, which are used to express the idea of forgiveness, the last two occur in this sense only once each. Apoluein (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',6,37);">Lu 6:37</a>) is used because of the analogy of sin to debt, and denotes the release from it. It has the meaning "forgiveness" in 2Macc 12:45 also, in which passage the word for sin is expressed. In <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',3,25);">Ro 3:25</a> Paul uses paresis instead of the usual aphesis. The former means "putting aside," "disregarding," "pretermission"; the latter, "putting away" completely and unreservedly (Trench, Synonyms of the New Testament, section xxxiii). It does not mean forgiveness in the complete sense, and in the King James Version is incorrectly translated "remission." Nor does it mean that God had temporarily suspended punishment which at some later date He might inflict (Sanday on <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',3,25);">Ro 3:25</a>). It was apparent that God had treated sins as though He had forgiven them, though in fact such an attitude on the part of God was without such a foundation as was later supplied by an adequate atonement, and so the apostle avoids saying that God forgave them. This passing over of sins had the tendency of destroying man\'s conception of God\'s righteousness, and in order to avert this Christ was set forth as a propitiation and God\'s disregard of sin (paresis) became a real forgiveness (aphesis); compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',14,16);">Ac 14:16</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',17,30);">17:30</a>. Charizesthai is not found outside of the writings of Luke and Paul, and in the sense "to forgive sins" is peculiarly Pauline (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',2,7);">2Co 2:7</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',12,13);">12:13</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eph\',3,2);">Eph 3:2</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Col\',2,13);">Col 2:13</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Col\',3,13);">3:13</a>). It expresses, as no other of these words does, his conception of the graciousness of God\'s pardon. Kaphar (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',21,8);">De 21:8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',78,38);">Ps 78:38</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',18,23);">Jer 18:23</a>) and calah (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',30,5,8,12);">Nu 30:5, 8, 12</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',8,30,34,36,39,50);">1Ki 8:30,34,36,39,50</a>, etc.) are used only of Divine forgiveness, while nasa\' is used in this sense (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',32,32);">Ex 32:32</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',14,19);">Nu 14:19</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',24,19);">Jos 24:19</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',25,18);">Ps 25:18</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',32,1,5);">32:1, 5</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',99,8);">99:8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',2,9);">Isa 2:9</a>), and also of human forgiveness (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',50,17);">Ge 50:17</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',10,17);">Ex 10:17</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',25,28);">1Sa 25:28</a>). Remission (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',26,28);">Mt 26:28</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',1,4);">Mr 1:4</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',1,77);">Lu 1:77</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',24,47);">24:47</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',2,38);">Ac 2:38</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',10,43);">10:43</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Hbr\',9,22);">Heb 9:22</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Hbr\',10,18);">10:18</a>) and blotting out (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',51,1,9);">Ps 51:1, 9</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',43,25);">Isa 43:25</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',18,23);">Jer 18:23</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',3,19);">Ac 3:19</a>) are synonyms of forgiveness, and to understand it fully such words as save, justify, reconcile and atonement should also be considered.<P>2. Pagan and Jewish Ideas:<P>Forgiveness was not a pagan virtue. The large-souled man might disregard offenses in cases where he considered them beneath his notice, but to forgive was weak-spirited (F. W. Robertson on <a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',4,12);">1Co 4:12</a>). Even in the Old Testament, man\'s forgiveness of his fellow-man is infrequently mentioned. In every case the one asking forgiveness is in a position of subserviency, and is petitioning for that to which he has no just right (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',50,17);">Ge 50:17</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',10,17);">Ex 10:17</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',15,25);">1Sa 15:25</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',25,28);">25:28</a>). The Imprecatory Psalms attest the fact that forgiveness of enemies was not esteemed as a virtue by Israel. They could appeal to the law which enjoined upon them to seek neither the peace nor the prosperity of their avowed enemies (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',23,6);">De 23:6</a>; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Ezr\',9,12);">Ezr 9:12</a>). Jesus gave the popular summing-up of the law and not its exact words when he said, "Ye have heard that it was said...hate thine enemy" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',5,43);">Mt 5:43</a>), and this certainly does represent their attitude and their understanding of the teaching of the Scriptures.<P>3. The Teaching of Christ:<P>Christ taught that forgiveness is a duty. No limit can be set to the extent of forgiveness (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',17,4);">Lu 17:4</a>) and it must be granted without reserve. Jesus will not admit that there is any wrong so gross nor so often repeated that it is beyond forgiveness. To Him an unforgiving spirit is one of the most heinous of sins (Bruce, Parabolic Teaching, 376ff). This is the offense which God will not forgive (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',18,34,35);">Mt 18:34-35</a>). It is the very essence of the unpardonable sin (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',3,\'22-30\');">Mr 3:22-30</a>).<P>It was the one blemish of the elder son which marred an otherwise irreproachable life (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',15,\'28-30\');">Lu 15:28-30</a>). This natural, pagan spirit of implacability Jesus sought to displace by a generous, forgiving spirit. It is so far the essence of His teaching that in popular language "a Christian spirit" is not inappropriately understood to be synonymous with a forgiving disposition. His answer to Peter that one should forgive not merely seven times in a day, but seventy times seven (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',18,21,22);">Mt 18:21-22</a>), not only shows that He thought of no limit to one\'s forgiveness, but that the principle could not be reduced to a definite formula.<P>4. Conditions of Forgiveness:<P>Jesus recognized that there are conditions to be fulfilled before forgiveness can be granted. Forgiveness is part of a mutual relationship; the other part is the repentance of the offender. God does not forgive without repentance, nor is it required of man. The effect of forgiveness is to restore to its former state the relationship which was broken by sin. Such a restoration requires the cooperation of both parties. There must be both a granting and an acceptance of the forgiveness. Sincere, deep-felt sorrow for the wrong which works repentance (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',7,10);">2Co 7:10</a>) is the condition of mind which insures the acceptance of the forgiveness. Hence, Jesus commands forgiveness when the offender turns again, saying, "I repent" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',17,3,4);">Lu 17:3-4</a>). It was this state of mind which led the father joyfully to welcome the Prodigal before he even gave utterance to his newly formed purpose (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',15,21);">Lu 15:21</a>).<P>5. The Offended Party:<P>It is not to be supposed, however, that failure to repent upon the part of the offender releases the offended from all obligation to extend forgiveness. Without the repentance of the one who has wronged him he can have a forgiving state of mind. This Jesus requires, as is implied by, "if ye forgive not every one his brother from your hearts" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',18,35);">Mt 18:35</a>). It is also implied by the past tense in the Lord\'s Prayer: "as we also have forgiven our debtors" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',6,12);">Mt 6:12</a>). It is this forgiving spirit which conditions God\'s forgiveness of our sins (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',11,25);">Mr 11:25</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',6,14,15);">Mt 6:14-15</a>). In such a case the unforgiving spirit is essentially unrepentance (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',18,\'23-35\');">Mt 18:23-35</a>). "Of all acts, is not, for a man, repentance the most Divine?"<P>The offended is to go even farther and is to seek to bring the wrongdoer to repentance. This is the purpose of the rebuking commanded in <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',17,3);">Lu 17:3</a>. More explicitly Jesus says, "If thy brother sin against thee, go, show him his fault between thee and him alone" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',18,\'15-17\');">Mt 18:15-17</a>). He is to carry his pursuit to the point of making every reasonable effort to win the wrongdoer, and only when he has exhausted every effort may he abandon it. The object is the gaining of his brother. Only when this is evidently unattainable is all effort to cease.<P>The power of binding and loosing, which means forbidding and allowing, was granted to Peter (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',16,19);">Mt 16:19</a>) and to the Christian community (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',18,18);">Mt 18:18</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',20,23);">Joh 20:23</a>). It clearly implies the possession of the power to forgive sins. In the case of Peter\'s power it was exercised when he used the keys of the kingdom of heaven (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',16,19);">Mt 16:19</a>). This consisted in the proclamation of the gospel and especially of the conditions upon which men might enter into relationship with God (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',2,38);">Ac 2:38</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',10,34);">10:34</a>). It was not limited to Peter only, but was shared by the other apostles (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',16,19);">Mt 16:19</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',18,18);">18:18</a>). Christ left no fixed rules the observance or non-observance of which would determine whether one is or is not in the kingdom of God. He gave to His disciples principles, and in the application of these principles to the problems of life there had to be the exercise of discriminating judgment. The exercise of this judgment was left to the Christian community (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',2,10);">2Co 2:10</a>).<P>It is limited by the principles which are the basis of the kingdom, but within these principles the voice of the community is supreme. The forgiveness here implied is not the pronouncing of absolution for the sins of individuals, but the determination of courses of conduct and worship which will be acceptable. In doing this its decisions will be ratified in heaven (Westcott on <a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',20,23);">Joh 20:23</a>).<P>That there is a close analogy between human and Divine forgiveness is clearly implied (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',5,23,24);">Mt 5:23-24</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',6,12);">6:12</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',11,25);">Mr 11:25</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',6,37);">Lu 6:37</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Col\',1,14);">Col 1:14</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Col\',3,13);">3:13</a>). God"s forgiveness is conditional upon man\'s forgiveness of the wrongs done him, not because God forgives grudgingly but because forgiveness alone indicates that disposition of mind which will humbly accept the Divine pardon.<P>6. Divine and Human Forgiveness:<P>Repentance is a necessary ingredient of the fully developed forgiveness. There is no essential difference between the human and the Divine pardon, though the latter is necessarily more complete. It results in the complete removal of all estrangement and alienation between God and man. It restores completely the relationship which existed prior to the sin. The total removal of the sin as a result of the Divine forgiveness is variously expressed in the Scriptures: "Thou hast cast all my sins behind thy back" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',38,17);">Isa 38:17</a>); "Thou wilt cast all their sins into the depths of the sea" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mic\',7,19);">Mic 7:19</a>); "I will forgive their iniquity, and their sin will I remember no more" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',31,34);">Jer 31:34</a>); "I, even I, am he that blotteth out thy transgressions" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',43,25);">Isa 43:25</a>); "As far as the east is from the west, so far hath he removed our transgressions from us" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',103,12);">Ps 103:12</a>). Ideally this same result is attained in human forgiveness, but actually the memory of the sin remains with both parties as a barrier between them, and even when there is a complete restoration of amity the former state of alienation cannot entirely be removed from memory. When God forgives, however, He restores man to the condition of former favor. Release from punishment is involved, though Divine forgiveness is more than this. In most cases the consequences, which in some instances are spoken of as punishment, are not removed, but they lose all penal character and become disciplinary. Nor does the forgiveness remove from human mind the consciousness of sin and the guilt which that involved, but it does remove the mistrust which was the ground of the alienation. Mistrust is changed into trust, and this produces peace of mind (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',32,\'5-7\');">Ps 32:5-7</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',5,1);">Ro 5:1</a>); consciousness of the Divine love and mercy (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',103,2);">Ps 103:2</a>); removes fear of punishment (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',12,13);">2Sa 12:13</a>); and awakens love to God.<P>7. Forgiveness and Justification:<P>Paul rarely uses the term "forgiveness," but in its place prefers justification. They are to his understanding practically synonymous (Stevens, Theology of the New Testament, 418). He preferred the latter, however, because it was better fitted to express the idea of secure, present and permanent acceptance in the sight of God. It connoted both a complete and a permanent state of grace. In popular thought forgiveness is not so comprehensive, but in the Biblical sense it means no less than this. It removes all of the guilt and cause of alienation from the past; it assures a state of grace for the present; and promises Divine mercy and aid for the future. Its fullness cannot adequately be conveyed by any one term or formula. Divine, like human, forgiveness is always contingent upon the fulfillment of conditions. It must be preceded by repentance and a firmly fixed intention not to repeat the offense. In addition to this, one was required to conform to certain legal or formal acts before the assurance of pardon was his. These acts were expressive of the sinner\'s state of mind. They consisted of certain acts of sacrifice in the pre-Christian times and of baptism during the ministry of John the Baptist (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',1,4);">Mr 1:4</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',3,3);">Lu 3:3</a>) and under Christ (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',2,38);">Ac 2:38</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',22,16);">22:16</a>). These acts are never regarded as in any sense a quid pro quo in return for which the benefit of forgiveness is granted. It is an act of pure grace on God\'s part, and these acts are required as expressions of the man\'s attitude toward God. The state of mind required in order to obtain the gift of forgiveness is that to which the Prodigal Son came (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',15,\'17-19\');">Lu 15:17-19</a>), and that of the sinner who went to his house justified rather than the Pharisee (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',18,\'9-14\');">18:9-14</a>), because he realized that forgiveness was to him an act of pure favor. There was real and actual forgiveness of sins in the Old Testament times as well as since Christ. Certain passages have been construed to teach that the Law provided only for a passing over or rolling back of sins, and that there was not then an actual forgiveness.<P>8. Old Testament Teaching:<P>The sacrifices prescribed by the Law were not adequate atonements, so that there was constant necessity of yearly remembrance of sin (<a onClick="return mV(\'Hbr\',10,3);">Heb 10:3</a>; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',16,21);">Le 16:21</a>). The atonement of Christ is, however, of permanent adequacy, and became retroactive in the sense that it unified in Christ the Divine arrangement for saving mankind in all ages (<a onClick="return mV(\'Hbr\',11,40);">Heb 11:40</a>). "The passing over of the sins done aforetime" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',3,25);">Ro 3:25</a>) does not imply a partial or apparent forgiveness, but means that they were forgiven, though seemingly without adequate recognition on the part of God of their heinous character. In view of God\'s righteous character men might naturally have expected punishment, but instead the offenders were spared (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',14,16);">Ac 14:16</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',17,30);">17:30</a>). No expression in the Old Testament suggests any inadequacy of the forgiveness extended to Israel, but on the other hand many passages may be quoted to show how rich and full it was deemed to be (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',103,\'1-\');">Ps 103</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mic\',7,19);">Mic 7:19</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',38,17);">Isa 38:17</a>, <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',31,34);">Jer 31:34</a>).<P>9. Limitations of Forgiveness:<P>Two passages seem to limit God\'s forgiveness. They are Christ\'s discussion of the unpardonable sin (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',12,31,32);">Mt 12:31-32</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',3,\'28-30\');">Mr 3:28-30</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',12,10);">Lu 12:10</a>), and the one which mentions the sin unto death (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Jo\',5,16);">1Joh 5:16</a>; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Hbr\',6,\'4-6\');">Heb 6:4-6</a>). In the former passage there is mentioned a sin which has no forgiveness, and in the latter, one on behalf of which the apostle cannot enjoin prayer that it be forgiven, though he does not prohibit it. In both cases the sin is excluded from the customary forgiveness which is extended to sins of all other classes.<P>The act of the Pharisees which led Jesus to speak of the unpardonable sin was the attributing of a good deed wrought by Him through the Spirit of God (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',12,28);">Mt 12:28</a>) to Beelzebub. No one could do such a thing unless his moral nature was completely warped. To such a person the fundamental distinctions between good and evil were obliterated. No ordinary appeal could reach him, for to him good seemed evil and evil seemed good. The possibility of winning him back is practically gone; hence, he is beyond the hope of forgiveness, not because God has set an arbitrary line of sinfulness, beyond which His grace of forgiveness will not reach, but because the man has put himself beyond the possibility of attaining to that state of mind which is the essential condition of Divine forgiveness. It is practically certain that John did not have any particular sinful act in mind when he spoke of the sin which is unto death.<P>See <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=BLASPHEMY">BLASPHEMY</a>.<P>There is no possible way of determining what specific sin, if any, he refers to. Probably the same principle applies in this case as in that of the unpardonable sin. God\'s forgiveness is limited solely by the condition that man must accept it in the proper spirit.<P>There are some passages which seem to imply that forgiveness was the principal Messianic task. This is suggested by the name given to the Messiah during His earthly career (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',1,21);">Mt 1:21</a>), and by the fact that He was the Saviour. The remission of sins was the preparation for the advent of the Messiah (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',1,77);">Lu 1:77</a>), and repentance and remission of sins were the prerequisites to a state of preparation for the kingdom.<P>10. Christ\'s Power to Forgive Sins:<P>It is not surprising, therefore, that we find Jesus laying claim to the power to forgive sins. This provoked a bitter controversy with the Jews, for it was axiomatic with them that no one could forgive sins but God only (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',2,7);">Mr 2:7</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',5,21);">Lu 5:21</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',7,49);">7:49</a>). This Jesus did not question, but He would have them infer from His power to forgive sins that He was the possessor of Divine power. Jesus asserted His possession of this power on two occasions only, though it has been sfficiently inferred from <a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',5,14);">Joh 5:14</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',8,11);">8:11</a> that He was accustomed to pronounce absolution upon all of those He healed. On one of these occasions He not merely asserted that He possessed the power, but demonstrated it by showing Himself to be the possessor of the Divine gift of healing. The impostor might claim some such intangible power as the authority to forgive sins, but he would never assert the possession of such easily disproved power as the ability to heal the sick. But Jesus claimed both, and based His claim to be the possessor of the former on the demonstration that He possessed the latter. God would not support an impostor, hence, his aid in healing the paralytic proved that Jesus could forgive sins. The multitude accepted this logic and "glorified God, who had given such authority unto men" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',9,\'2-9\');">Mt 9:2-9</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',2,\'3-12\');">Mr 2:3-12</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',5,\'18-26\');">Lu 5:18-26</a>).<P>On the other occasion when His possession of this power was under discussion (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',7,\'36-50\');">Lu 7:36-50</a>), He offered no other proof than the forgiven woman\'s deep gratitude and love. One expression that He uses, however, has raised some discussion as to the relative order in time of her love and forgiveness (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',7,47);">Lu 7:47</a>). Did she love because she was forgiven, or vice versa? Manifestly the forgiveness precedes the love, in spite of the fact that <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',7,47);">Lu 7:47</a> seems to assert the opposite, for this is the bearing of the parable of the Two Debtors (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',7,41,42,43);">7:41-43</a>), and the latter part of <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',7,47);">7:47</a> has the same implication. It is clear that she had previously repented and had been accepted, and the anointing of Jesus was an outpouring of her gratitude.<P>The phrase of <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',7,47);">7:47</a>, "for she loved much," is proof of the greatness of her sin rather than a reason why she was forgiven. In both cases where Jesus forgave sins, He did so because the state of mind of the person forgiven showed worthiness of the blessing. To this as a condition of forgiveness there is no exception. Christ\'s prayer on the cross (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',23,34);">Lu 23:34</a>) would not avail to secure the pardon of His murderers without their repentance.<P>11. The Need of an Atonement:<P>Though forgiveness is on God\'s part an act of pure grace prompted by His love and mercy, and though He forgives freely all those who comply with the condition of repentance and abandonment of sin, yet this does not dispense with the necessity of an atonement. The parable of the Prodigal Son was spoken to teach the freedom of God\'s forgiveness and acceptance of returning sinners, and the duty of men to assume the same attitude toward them. This much it teaches, but it fails to set forth entirely God\'s attitude toward sin. With reference to the sinner God is love and mercy, but with reference to sin He is righteous, and this element of God\'s nature is no less essential to Him than His love, and must be considered in any effort to set forth completely the doctrine of God\'s forgiveness of sinners. The atonement of Christ and the many atonements of the Law were manifestations of this phase of God\'s nature.<P>12. The New Testament Doctrine of Atonement:<P>The idea of an atonement is fundamental in the teachings of the New Testament (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',5,10);">Ro 5:10</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',5,\'18-21\');">2Co 5:18-21</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Col\',1,21);">Col 1:21</a>). It is very clearly implied in such terms as reconciliation and propitiation, and is no less present in pardon, remission and forgiveness. The doctrine of the atonement is not developed by Jesus, but it is strongly hinted at and is unmistakably implied in the language of <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',20,28);">Mt 20:28</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',26,28);">26:28</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',10,45);">Mr 10:45</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',24,46,47);">Lu 24:46-47</a>. John the Baptist\'s salute, "Behold, the Lamb of God, that taketh away the sin of the world!" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',1,29);">Joh 1:29</a>), also implies it. In the writings of the apostles it is repeatedly and clearly affirmed that our forgiveness and reconciliation to God is based upon the death of Christ. "In none other is there salvation" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',4,12);">Ac 4:12</a>); through Him is the redemption (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',3,24);">Ro 3:24</a>); God set Him forth to be a propitiation (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',3,25);">Ro 3:25</a>); through Him "we have now received the reconciliation" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',5,11);">Ro 5:11</a>); "God was in Christ reconciling the world unto himself" (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',5,19);">2Co 5:19</a>); "Him who knew no sin he made to be sin on our behalf" (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',5,21);">2Co 5:21</a>); and "Christ redeemed us from the curse of the law, having become a curse for us" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gal\',3,13);">Ga 3:13</a>). Such citations might be greatly multiplied. That which was so perfectly accomplished by the offering of Christ was in an analagous though imperfect way accomplished by the sacrifices required by the Law. It had "a shadow of the good things to come" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Hbr\',10,1);">Heb 10:1</a>).<P>The unvarying effect of sin is to produce an estrangement between the injurer and the wronged. The nature of God is such and the relationship between Him and man is of such a character that sin brings about an alienation between them. It is this presupposition of an estrangement between them which renders the atonement necessary before forgiveness can be extended to man. This estrangement must be removed, and the alienation be transformed into a reconciliation. In what then does the alienation consist?<P>The sin of man produces a changed attitude toward each other on the part of both God and man. God holds no personal pique against man because of his sin. The New Testament language is very carefully chosen to avoid any statement which would seem to convey such a conception. Yet God\'s holy righteousness is such that He cannot be indifferent to sin. His wrath must rest upon the disobedient (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',3,36);">Joh 3:36</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',1,18);">Ro 1:18</a>). It is not merely impersonal. It is not enough to say He hates the sin. Man\'s unrighteousness has not merely alienated him from God, but God also from him. The word "enemies" (echthroi) of <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',5,10);">Ro 5:10</a> is passive, and means the object of God\'s enmity (Sunday, at the place). It was because of this fact that God set forth Christ to be a propitiation to show His righteousness because of the passing over of sins done aforetime (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',3,25,26);">Ro 3:25-26</a>).<P>God\'s passing over, without inflicting punishment, the sins of pre-Christian times had placed in jeopardy His righteousness; had exposed Him to the implication that He could tolerate sin. God could not be true to Himself while He tolerated such an imputation, and so instead of visiting punishment upon all who sinned<65>which would have been one way of showing His righteousness<73>He set forth Christ to death ("in his blood"), and in this way placed Himself beyond the imputation of unrighteousness while it enabled Him to show mercy to sinners. The effect of sin upon man was to estrange him from God, to lead him farther and farther away from his Maker. Each successive sin produced a greater barrier between the two. Now the atonement was designed to remove the cause of this estrangement and restore the former relationship between God and man.<P>This too, it has been observed, is the purpose of forgiveness, so that the atonement finds its completion in forgiveness. It should be noted that the reconciliation originates with God and not with man (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',3,25);">Ro 3:25</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',5,19);">2Co 5:19</a>). God woos man before the latter seeks God. The effect of the atonement on man is to reconcile him, attract him, to God. It shows him God\'s love for man, and the forgiveness, in that it removes sin completely, takes away the estranging factor between them and so wins man back to God. "We love, because he first loved us." At the same time the atonement is such a complete expression of both the love and the righteousness of God that, while on the one hand it exhibits his yearning for man, on the other it shows that He is not tolerant toward sin. In the atonement of Christ, therefore, is the meeting-place and the reconcilement of God\'s holy horror of sin and the free bestowal of forgiveness upon penitent believers.``124';
isbe[3536]='Forgo`for-go\' (from for, negative, and go):<P>Occurs in Ecclesiasticus 7:19, as translation of astocheo, which means "to miss the mark," "turn or swerve from." "Forgo not a wise and good wife (the King James Version "woman"); for her grace is above gold," meaning "Turn not away from her"; in Ecclesiasticus 8:9, the word is rendered "miss not"; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ti\',1,6);">1Ti 1:6</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ti\',6,21);">6:21</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ti\',2,18);">2Ti 2:18</a>.``1';
isbe[3537]='Fork`fork (shelosh qilleshon):<P>This compound word, meaning strictly "three points" or "three prongs," is found only once (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',13,21);">1Sa 13:21</a>), and doubtless there refers to the agricultural tool now known as the pitchfork. It might, however, also be a weapon.``1';
isbe[3538]='Form`form (yatsar, to\'ar; morphe):<P>(1) To form is "to fashion," "create," "produce." In the Old Testament it is for the most part the translation of yatsar, "to form," "to fashion" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',2,7);">Ge 2:7</a>, etc., "Yahweh God formed man of the dust of the ground," etc.); also of chul and chil, "to be twisted" "turned round" "to bring forth (in pain)" (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',13,8);">Isa 13:8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mic\',4,10);">Mic 4:10</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',32,18);">De 32:18</a> the King James Version, "God that formed thee"; <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',26,13);">Job 26:13</a> the King James Version; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',90,2);">Ps 90:2</a>, "or ever thou hadst formed the earth" etc.; <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',26,10);">Pr 26:10</a> the King James Version). In the New Testament we have morphoo, "to form" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gal\',4,19);">Ga 4:19</a>, "until Christ be formed in you"); plasso, "to form," "to mold" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',9,20);">Ro 9:20</a>, "him that formed it"; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ti\',2,13);">1Ti 2:13</a>, "Adam was first formed"; 2Macc 7:23, "the Creator...who formed the generation of man," the Revised Version (British and American) "fashioned"; 7:22, "that formed the members (diarrhuthmizo)," the Revised Version (British and American) "brought into order").<P>(2) Form (noun) is used for<P>(a) appearance, mar\'eh, "sight," "appearance" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',4,16);">Job 4:16</a>, "I could not discern the form thereof" the Revised Version (British and American) "appearance" with "form" for "image" (temunah) in next sentence); tselem, Aramaic "image" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Dan\',3,19);">Da 3:19</a>, "The form of his visage was changed"); rew, "form," "likeness" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Dan\',2,31);">Da 2:31</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Dan\',3,25);">3:25</a>, the Revised Version (British and American) "aspect"); to\'ar, "visage," "form" (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',28,14);">1Sa 28:14</a>, "What form is he of?");<P>(b) the fixed or characteristic form of anything, tabhnith, "model," "form" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',8,3);">Eze 8:3</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',10,8);">10:8</a>, "the form of a hand"; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',8,10);">Eze 8:10</a>, "every form of creeping things"); morphe, characteristic form as distinguished from schema, changing fashion (<a onClick="return mV(\'Phl\',2,6);">Php 2:6</a>, "in the form of God"; <a onClick="return mV(\'Phl\',2,7);">Php 2:7</a>, "the form of a servant"; less distinctly <a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',16,12);">Mr 16:12</a>, "in another form");<P>(c) shape, model, pattern, mold, tsurah, "shape," from tsur, "to cut or carve" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',43,11);">Eze 43:11</a>, ter, "the form of the house," etc.); mishpat, "rule" (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',4,7);">2Ch 4:7</a> the King James Version); tupos, "type," "impress" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',6,17);">Ro 6:17</a>, the Revised Version, margin "pattern"); hupotuposis, "outline," pattern (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ti\',1,13);">2Ti 1:13</a>, the Revised Version (British and American) "pattern"); morphosis, "form," "appearance" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',2,20);">Ro 2:20</a>, "the form of knowledge");<P>(d) orderly arrangement, giving shape or form (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',1,2);">Ge 1:2</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',4,23);">Jer 4:23</a>, the earth was "without form," tohu, the Revised Version (British and American) "waste"; The <span class="noTag">Wisdom of Solomon 11:17</span>, amorphos); "form of speech" (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',14,20);">2Sa 14:20</a>, aspect, panim, "face," the Revised Version (British and American) "to change the face of the matter"); as giving comeliness or beauty, to\'ar (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',52,14);">Isa 52:14</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',53,2);">53:2</a>, "He hath no form nor comeliness"; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',29,17);">Ge 29:17</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',39,6);">39:6</a>, etc.; The <span class="noTag">Wisdom of Solomon 15:5</span>, "desiring the form (eidos) of a dead image," the Revised Version (British and American) "the breathless form");<P>(e) Show, without substance, morphosis, "form" (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ti\',3,5);">2Ti 3:5</a>, "holding a form of godliness").<P>ARV has "didst form" for "hast possessed" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',139,13);">Ps 139:13</a>, so the English Revised Version, margin; both have "formed" for "made" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',104,26);">Ps 104:26</a>), the American Standard Revised Version for "framed" twice (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',29,16);">Isa 29:16</a>); both for "formed thee," "gave birth" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',32,18);">De 32:18</a>); "pierced" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',26,13);">Job 26:13</a>); "woundeth" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',26,10);">Pr 26:10</a>); "fastened" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',44,10);">Isa 44:10</a>); for "are formed from" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',26,5);">Job 26:5</a>), "tremble"; for "their form" (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',4,7);">2Ch 4:7</a>), "the ordinance concerning them"; "form" for "similitude" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',12,8);">Nu 12:8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',4,12);">De 4:12, 15</a>); for "size" (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',6,25);">1Ki 6:25</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',7,37);">7:37</a>); for "shape" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',3,22);">Lu 3:22</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',5,37);">Joh 5:37</a>); "in the form" for "similitude" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',4,16);">De 4:16</a>); for "or the like" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',4,23,25);">De 4:23, 25</a>); the American Standard Revised Version "(beholding) thy form" for "thy likeness" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',17,15);">Ps 17:15</a>, the English Revised Version, margin); "every form" for "all appearance" (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Th\',5,22);">1Th 5:22</a>; so the English Revised Version, margin "appearance").``185';
isbe[3539]='Former`for\'-mer:<P>The word in the sense of "maker," "framer," occurs only in <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',51,19);">Jer 51:19</a>, "He is the former (from yatsar, "to form") of all things." The adjective, in the sense of preceding in the order of time, is commonly in Hob the translation of ri\'shon, "first," "foremost" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',40,13);">Ge 40:13</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',21,26);">Nu 21:26</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',24,4);">De 24:4</a>, etc.); in Greek of proteros (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eph\',4,22);">Eph 4:22</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Hbr\',10,32);">Heb 10:32</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Pe\',1,14);">1Pe 1:14</a>); and in two cases (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',1,1);">Ac 1:1</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',21,4);">Re 21:4</a>) of protos, where the Revised Version (British and American) has (in Acts in the margin) "the first." As denoting place or position the word occurs in the Old Testament in <a onClick="return mV(\'Zec\',14,8);">Zec 14:8</a>, "the former sea" as translation of qadhmoni, "in front," where the Revised Version (British and American) has "eastern," i.e. the Dead Sea, in contrast with the Mediterranean, or western sea (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',47,18);">Eze 47:18</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Joe\',2,20);">Joe 2:20</a>). For "former iniquities" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',79,8);">Ps 79:8</a>) the Revised Version (British and American) has simply "the iniquities"; Other changes may be seen in <a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',6,12);">Nu 6:12</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',65,7);">Isa 65:7</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',36,11);">Eze 36:11</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mic\',4,8);">Mic 4:8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Hag\',2,3);">Hag 2:3</a>.``185';
isbe[3540]='Fornication`for-ni-ka\'-shun.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=CRIMES">CRIMES</a>`1';
isbe[3541]='Forswear`for-swar\'.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=CRIMES">CRIMES</a>`1';
isbe[3542]='Forth`forth: "Forth," adverb (from "for"), signifies movement<P>(1) forward,<P>(2) out of,<P>(3) beyond a certain boundary.<P>In a few instances in the Old Testament it is the translation of the preposition \'al, properly "above," "upon" (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',11,15);">2Ki 11:15</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',23,14);">2Ch 23:14</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Amo\',7,17);">Am 7:17</a> the King James Version), and of chuts, "without" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',39,13);">Ge 39:13</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',19,25);">Jud 19:25</a>). "Forth" is often used as an expletive of various verbs, as "break (forth)," "bring (forth)," "call (forth)," etc. In the Gospel of John it is the translation of exo, "without," as "Lazarus, come forth" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',11,43);">11:43</a>; so <a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',15,6);">15:6</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',19,4);">19:4</a> the King James Version, etc.; also <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',5,34);">Ac 5:34</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',9,40);">9:40</a>). "Stand forth" in <a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',3,3);">Mr 3:3</a> is the translation of egeire eis to meson, margin "Arise into the midst." the Revised Version (British and American) has a great many changes, frequently substituting "out," "away," "abroad," etc.; "forth from" for "out of" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',41,21);">Job 41:21</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',45,23);">Isa 45:23</a>); "spread forth" for "stretched out" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',44,20);">Ps 44:20</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',88,9);">88:9</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',136,6);">136:6</a>), etc. In <a onClick="return mV(\'Col\',1,6);">Col 1:6</a>, for "bringeth forth fruit" the Revised Version (British and American) reads "bearing fruit."``185';
isbe[3543]='Fortification; Fort; Fortified Cities; Fortress`for-ti-fi-ka\'-shun (including):<P><b>I. IN RECENT EXCAVATIONS</b><P class="in15">1. Excavation of Tells<P class="in15">2. Sites<P class="in15">3. Primitive Character<P class="in15">4. Walls<P class="in15">5. Towers<P class="in15">6. Acropolis or Castle<P class="in15">7. Masonry<P class="in15">8. Gates<P class="in15">9. Water Supply<P><b>II. IN BIBLICAL HISTORY</b><P class="in15">1. Before the Monarchy<P class="in15">2. In the Period of the Monarchy<P class="in15">3. In the Period of the Return<P><b>III. IN THE PSALMS AND THE PROPHETS</b><P class="in15">1. The Psalms<P class="in15">2. The Prophets<P><b>IV. IN THE NEW TESTAMENT</b><P class="in15">1. In Paul\'s Epistles<P class="in15">2. In the Acts of the Apostles<P class="in15">3. In the Gospel History<P><b>LITERATURE</b><hr /><P>Has a number of words representing its various elements and aspects:<P>(1) mibhtsar, is the term generally rendered "fenced" or "defenced city." In both the King James Version and the Revised Version (British and American) of Isaiah and Jeremiah we find for the most part the more formal "defenced city." It is found by itself (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',17,3);">Isa 17:3</a>); with \'ir, "city" (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',6,18);">1Sa 6:18</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',3,19);">2Ki 3:19</a>; plural \'are mibhtsar, "fenced (the American Standard Revised Version "fortified") cities," <a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',32,17);">Nu 32:17</a>); with tsor, "Tyre" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',19,29);">Jos 19:29</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',24,7);">2Sa 24:7</a>, where it is rendered "stronghold").<P>(2) misgabh, "high fort" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',25,12);">Isa 25:12</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',48,1);">Jer 48:1</a> the Revised Version, margin; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',9,9);">Ps 9:9</a>, and many other places in the Pss).<P>(3) ma\'oz, "fortress," "stronghold" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',6,26);">Jud 6:26</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',31,2);">Ps 31:2</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Dan\',11,39);">Da 11:39</a>).<P>(4) metsudhah, "fort" the King James Version, "stronghold" the Revised Version (British and American) (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',5,9,17);">2Sa 5:9, 17</a>).<P>(5) metsurah, "fort" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',29,3);">Isa 29:3</a> the King James Version; plural the Revised Version (British and American) "siege works").<P>(6) mutstsabh (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',29,3);">Isa 29:3</a>, "fort" the English Revised Version, "mount" the King James Version, "posted troops" the American Standard Revised Version).<P>(7) dayeq, "fort" (for the siege of a city, the wall of circumvallation cast up by the besiegers, <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',25,1);">2Ki 25:1</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',52,4);">Jer 52:4</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',4,2);">Eze 4:2</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',17,17);">17:17</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',21,22);">21:22</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',26,8);">26:8</a>).<P>(8) matsor, "fortress" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',10,17);">Jer 10:17</a> margin, wall of circumvallation: <a onClick="return mV(\'Hab\',2,1);">Hab 2:1</a>, "tower" the King James Version, "fortress" the Revised Version, margin; <a onClick="return mV(\'Zec\',9,3);">Zec 9:3</a>).<P>(9) birah, "palace" the King James Version, "castle" the Revised Version (British and American) (<a onClick="return mV(\'Neh\',2,8);">Ne 2:8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Neh\',7,2);">7:2</a>). Birah Grecized is baris, which has the double meaning of "palace" and "fortress." Nehemiah\'s "castle" figures largely in the Books of Maccabees and in Josephus, and is the Castle of Antonia of the Acts of the Apostles.<P>(10) ochuroma (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',10,4);">2Co 10:4</a>, its only occurrence in the New Testament though it is the chief equivalent of mibhtsar in the Septuagint). In this connection it is to be noted that chomah, is Hebrew for "wall," Greek teichos; chel or cheyl, is Hebrew for the "ditch," or "rampart," or "bastion" of a fortress; mighdal, "tower"; pinnah plural pinnoth, "corner towers."<P>Fortified Places:<P>From the very beginning of their history as a nation the Israelites were acquainted with fortified cities. The report of cities "great and fortified up to heaven," inhabited by the sons of Anak, by Amalekites, Hittites, Jebusites, Amorites and Canaanites, struck terror into the hearts of the Israelites in the wilderness, and called forth murmurings from them on their way to Canaan (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',13,28);">Nu 13:28</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',1,28);">De 1:28</a>). Not that these cities were at all of the extent or population of modern cities, or of Nineveh, Babylon and Memphis of old. But to a people who were as yet little better than a horde of fugitives accustomed to the simple camp life of the wilderness and unacquainted with appliances for siege and assault, the prospect of scaling the walls and conquering the inhabitants was appalling. The cities of the Canaanites were already old when Joshua led the Israelites to the conquest of the land. Not a little of their history has become known to us, and the character of their defensive works has been disclosed by Palestinian excavation in recent years.<P>I. In Recent Excavations.<P>1. Excavation of Tells:<P>It has been largely to the tells, or mounds of buried cities, chiefly in the southwest of the land, that exploration has been directed. The Palestine Exploration Fund, drawing its resources from Great Britain and also from America, was the first, and has all along been the foremost, in the work of excavation. Through the labors of Professor Flinders Petrie at Tell el-Hesy; of Dr. F. J. Bliss, and Professor Stewart Macalister at Tell Zakariyah, Tell ec-Safi, Tell ej-Judeideh, Tell Sandahannah, and more recently of Professor Macalister at Gezer, the Fund has added largely to our knowledge of the fenced cities of Canaan. The work of Sir Charles Warren, Sir Charles W. Wilson, Colonel Conder and other explorers at Jerusalem under the same auspices has been of great value for illustrating the defensive works of a later time. Germany and Austria have not been behind. The excavation, first, of Tell Ta\'anek in the Plain of Esdraelon, and, at the present time (1911), of Jericho by Professor E. Sellin, formerly of Vienna, now of Rostock; and of Tell el-Mutesellim, the ancient Megiddo, by Gottlieb Schumacher, has yielded results of the highest importance. Since 1908 an American expedition from Harvard University, first under Schumacher and now under Dr. Reisner, who had previously excavated at the Pyramids and other places in Egypt, has explored with remarkable results the site of the capital of the Northern Kingdom, Samaria. Excavations have also been conducted by the German Orient Committee at Sinjerli which have thrown a flood of light upon the archaeology of Northern Syria and especially upon the wonderful Hittite people. The memoirs and reports of these excavations have furnished abundance of material for tracing the evolution and understanding the anatomy of the tell. They usefully supplement the Scripture narratives, and confirm them in many particulars.<P>2. Sites:<P>These cities of the primitive inhabitants of Canaan occupied sites easily capable of defense. They were built either upon a projecting spur of a mountain ridge, like Gezer, Megiddo, Tell ec-Safi (believed to be the ancient Gath) and primitive Jerusalem, or upon an isolated eminence in the plain like Tell el-Hesy (Lachish) or Taanach. Compared with modern cities the area was small<6C>in the case of Gezer about a quarter of a mile square, Lachish 15 acres, Megiddo and Taanach 12 to 13 acres. A sufficient water supply within easy reach was an essential feature. Speaking of Gezer, Professor Macalister says: "Water, the first necessity of life, was in abundance. The three primitive modes of livelihood<6F>hunting, pasturing, and agriculture<72>could be practiced here better than in many places. Further, for defense<73>another prime necessity in early days<79>the hill is admirably fitted. It is steep and not easy to climb; and being fairly high it commands a wide prospect, so that the approach of enemies can be seen and prepared for" (Bible Side-Lights from Gezer, 25,26).<P>3. Primitive Character:<P>Their history goes back in most cases to a very remote antiquity. "It cannot have been much later than 3000 BC," says Professor Macalister regarding Gezer, "when a primitive race of men first realized that the bare rocky hill (as it then was) would be a suitable dwelling-place. This tribe was a cave-dwelling race" (as above; and PEFS, 1904, 311ff). The primitive race had occupied the hill perhaps five hundred years when the Canaanites drove them out, as they in turn were driven out by the Israelites. But the nature of their original habitations, the earliest relics of their social life, and what can be gathered of their religious rites all bear witness to a remote antiquity. From the mound of Tell el-Hesy, now almost certainly identified with the site of Lachish, eleven cities, one above the other have been disinterred, the eleventh or highest having nine cities between itself and the first Amorite buildings reared upon the original bluff. This lowest city is believed to go back some 2000 years BC, Professor Flinders Petrie having dated the successive cities by means of the pottery found in the strata of the mound. One of the eleven cities, possibly the fourth from the bottom, was that of Lachish, which fell a prey to Joshua (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',10,32);">Jos 10:32</a>), the walls of which, built of crude brick and 10-12 ft. in thickness, are a witness to its character as a fenced city (Bliss, A Mound of Many Cities, chapter iv).<P>4. Walls:<P>While the site of the Canaanite city was chosen for its natural strength, the first settlers soon felt the need of some fortification. At Sinjerli the excavators have been able to trace the general growth of the site from a group of shepherds\' huts into a walled town. The earliest fortification attempted was a rampart of earth following the natural contour of the hill (PEFS, 1903, 113). Within some such enclosing wall, houses were built and the inhabitants lived and pursued their avocations safely. The primitive earthbank in the case of Gezer was in course of time replaced first by an inner and then by an outer wall in succession. The outer wall when it was added to strengthen the inner was the chel, rendered in the English version "bulwark" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',26,1);">Isa 26:1</a>) or "rampart" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Nah\',3,8);">Na 3:8</a>, where the waters of the Nile served the same purpose). Professor Macalister estimates that the inner wall of Gezer had fallen into disuse and ruin by about 1450 BC and that it was the outer that saw the conquest of Canaan by the Israelites. "Even in its present ruined form," says Professor Macalister, "the outer city wall is an imposing structure. In places it still stands to a height of from 10 to 14 ft., and these can hardly be regarded as being much more than the underground foundations. The outer face of the city wall, towering above the hill on which the city was built, may well have seemed impregnable to the messengers of Moses" (Bible Side-Lights, 142). The walls of a later time, as we learn from Assyrian representations, were provided with battlements, very often crenellated, and "thy pinnacles of rubies" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',54,12);">Isa 54:12</a>, the Revised Version (British and American), the Revised Version, margin "windows") may refer to them. For the purpose of strengthening the walls, especially at the least defensible points, revetments or facings of stone or kiln-burnt bricks were sometimes added. Even these again would be rendered less assailable by a trench (chel) serving to cut off a fortress from adjacent level or sloping ground, as may still be seen outside the north wall of Jerusalem, and many parts ofthe walls of Constantinople.<P>5. Towers:<P>Towers were sometimes built at the corners or at points on the wall where attack was to be apprehended (<a onClick="return mV(\'Zep\',1,16);">Ze 1:16</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',14,7);">2Ch 14:7</a>). Such towers have been disclosed on the crest of the hill at Tell Zakariyah. At Gezer 30 towers were found round the outer wall. On the walls of Sinjerli there rose no fewer than 800 towers (Garstang, Land of the Hittites, 273). On the evidence of the excavations at this ancient Hittite site we gather that the cities about the time of the entrance of the Israelites into Canaan "were already surrounded by masoned walls, supported by numerous external towers, and entered through gateways barred by a pair of double doors and guarded by wing towers on either hand" (Land of the Hittites, 367). For illustrations, see <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=CITY">CITY</a>.<P>6. Acropolis or Castle:<P>Every one of these ancient cities had an inner fortress which would be an internal means of protection, and the last refuge of the defenders in extremity. At Tell Zakariyah the acropolis wall has been traced, and its shape has been found to be conditioned by the contours of the hill on which it stood. In an old Hittite settlement a fortress has been found rectangular in shape and supported by an outer and lower wall at a distance of 12 to 30 yds. (Land of the Hittites, 162). There is evidence that the mound or bluff originally occupied remained the fortress or acropolis of the city when it spread out over a larger area, and this seems to have been the case for some time at least with the Jebusite fort taken by David and made the capital of the kingdom. At Sinjerli, while there was a wall surrounding the whole township, there was an outer as well as an inner defensive wall to the citadel. Upon this citadel were found palaces from which the Assyrian king, Tiglath-pileser I, copied the plan of a Hittite palace, called in Assyrian Hilani.<P>7. Masonry:<P>The excavations enable us to see the progress of the art of fortification from very primitive beginnings. Crude brick and rough stone-work were the materials of the earliest walls. They are usually found of uncoursed masonry in which the large stones are undressed field boulders. The facings of stone and the joints in walls were often packed with pebbles or with limestone chippings, the stones themselves being more or less roughly trimmed and dressed to shape by a hammer. Corner-stones are found in the towers showing marks of the chisel, but it is not till well on in the Hebrew period that stones are found with bosses and marginal drafting. At Zakariyah the walls of the acropolis were of rubble laid in mud, mixed with straw without lime, and they contained some well-worked stones, irregularly intermingled with field stones of various sizes. At a later time mortar was used to cover the walls and give greater strength and support. But the clay used for the purpose was apt to crack unless it was given consistency by treading with the feet and mixing with water. Thus we read of a wall daubed with untempered mortar (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',13,\'10-16\');">Eze 13:10-16</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',22,28);">22:28</a>; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Nah\',3,14);">Na 3:14</a>). In the masonry of the Hittite fortress (see (6) above) the masonry of the inner wall is rough, dry stonewalling, while the outer is built of stones roughly pentagonal in shape, irregular in size, fitted to one another and laid without mortar, somewhat like the Cyclopean walls of the earliest periods of Greek history.<P>See <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=GEZER">GEZER</a>.<P>8. Gates:<P>The gates of the fenced cities of Canaan may not have had the social importance which the city gate came to possess in later times, but they were an important element in the defensive works of a city. They were as few as possible, so as to give only the necessary ingress and egress. The gate of Jericho was shut and secured at nightfall (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',2,5);">Jos 2:5</a>). The gate of Gaza had two leaves which were not hinged to the two gate-posts, but turned on pins moving in sockets in the sill and lintel, the bar stretching between the two posts and let into them to secure the gate (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',16,3);">Jud 16:3</a>, with Moore\'s notes). The hundred gates of Babylon, according to Herodotus, were all of brass (i.179); and Yahweh promises to Cyrus to break in pieces the doors of brass and to cut in sunder the bars of iron (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',45,2);">Isa 45:2</a>). That the bars were sometimes of wood is clear from what is said of the bars of Nineveh (<a onClick="return mV(\'Hab\',3,13);">Hab 3:13</a>). To protect the gate it was supplied with towers. Uzziah built towers in Jerusalem at the corner gate and at the valley gate, and fortilled them (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',26,9);">2Ch 26:9</a>). In the inner wall of Gezer, to which reference has been made, a gate of very remarkable structure has been found. The wall is of stone, but the gateway consists of a passage between two solid towers of brick. The passage <span class="noTag">is</span> 9 ft. wide and 42 ft. long, roughly paved with stones. Stone slabs on each side of the passageway bear traces of fire, and the absence of any wooden barrier may be due to a conflagration at the capture of the city. The towers remain standing and rise to a total height of about 16 ft. In later times watchmen were set on the tower over the gate to descry the approach of friend or foe or messenger (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',18,24);">2Sa 18:24</a>ff), and the tower had chambers in it which might be occupied by visitors or by a guard. For the more general purposes see <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=GATE">GATE</a>.<P>9. Water Supply:<P>One of the essential requisites of the primitive Canaanite fortress was a supply of water. At Gezer a copious spring within easy reach was available. Tell el-Hesy commands the only springs in that region (A Mound of Many Cities, 16). It is a strong point in favor of the modern theory of the ridge of Ophel being the site of Zion or David\'s town that the Virgin\'s Fountain, the only perennial spring in the whole circuit of Jerusalem, was close to it, and would have been an inducement to the Jebusites to build their fortress there. In the sites that have been excavated, cisterns, sometimes vaulted over and with steps down into them, have been constantly found. Traces have also been observed of concealed passages or tunnels by which access has been obtained to the nearest spring. Some such explanation has been given of the "gutter" (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',5,8);">2Sa 5:8</a> the King James Version, "watercourse" the Revised Version (British and American)), by which Joab obtained access to the fortress of Jebus and enabled David to capture it (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',11,6);">1Ch 11:6</a>; compare Vincent, Canaan d\'apres l\'exploration recente, 26). During an investment of a fortified city by an enemy, it was a point in strategy for the inhabitants to secure the fountain and to divert or conceal the stream flowing from it so that the besiegers might be left without a water supply (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',3,19,25);">2Ki 3:19, 25</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',32,3);">2Ch 32:3</a>; compare also <a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',12,26,27);">2Sa 12:26-27</a>, Century Bible, Kennedy\'s note).<P>II. In Biblical History.<P>1. Before the Monarchy:<P>On the passage of the Jordan the Israelites found in Jericho a walled city of great strength barring their progress. The excavations recently made have disclosed the common features of Canaanite fortresses<65>an outer wall, surrounding the entire area, 6 1/2 ft. thick, a citadel and protecting walls of hardly less substantial workmanship. Nearby also is the essential spring to furnish the water supply. Within the citadel were found the walls and rooms of Canaanite houses, and in many cases remains of infants buried in jars under the clay floors (Driver, Modern Research as Illustrating the Bible, 91ff). These examples of "foundation sacrifices" with which the excavations at Gezer have made us familiar give point to the account of the resettlement of the city in the days of Ahab, when Hiel the Bethelite rebuilt Jericho, laying the foundation thereof with the loss of Abiram, his firstborn, and setting up the gates thereof with the loss of his youngest son Segub (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',16,34);">1Ki 16:34</a>).<P>See <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=CORNER-STONE">CORNER-STONE</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=CANAAN">CANAAN</a>.<P>In the Book of Judges we read of the strong tower, or citadel, of Thebez, into which the inhabitants had crowded and to which Abimelech was setting fire when a woman upon the wall hurled a millstone upon him and broke his skull (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',9,51);">Jud 9:51</a>). It does not appear that at this period the Israelites were in possession of the strongholds of the land, for when the Philistines overran the country, they had no fortresses to flee to, but "did hide themselves in caves, and in thickets, and in rocks, and in coverts, and in pits" (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',13,6);">1Sa 13:6</a>).<P>2. In the Period of the Monarchy:<P>When David captured the Jebusite fortress (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',5,6);">2Sa 5:6</a>) and transferred his capital from Hebron to Jerusalem, a new era of independence and even of conquest began. The natural strength of David\'s town, with such fortification as had been added, made it impregnable to any Philistine or Syrian foe, and one of the strongest fortresses in Western Asia.<P>Although Solomon was a man of peace, he included among the great buildings which he executed fortresses and works of defense. He built the wall of Jerusalem round about. He built Millo (called Akra ("citadel") in the Septuagint), and closed the breaches of the city of David, so that there might be no vulnerable point found in the defenses of the city (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',9,15);">1Ki 9:15</a>). This fortification is represented in Septuagint, which has here an addition to the Massoretic Text, as securing the complete subjection of the original inhabitants who remained. Solomon also built Hazor to watch Damascus, Megiddo to guard the plain of Jezreel, and Gezer overlooking the maritime plain, his work being one of refortification rather than of building from the foundation. He fortified also Beth-horon, Upper and Nether, to block the way against Philistine invasion. The store cities, and cities to accommodate his chariots and horses, were also part of his military system (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',9,18);">1Ki 9:18</a>).<P>The disruption of the kingdoms, and the jealousy and hostility that followed between Judah and Israel, necessitated fresh undertakings of fortification, on the part of both kingdoms. Rehoboam dwelt in Jerusalem, and built cities for defense in Judah. He fortified the strongholds and provisioned them and stored arms within them in case of siege (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',11,5);">2Ch 11:5</a>). One of Jeroboam\'s first acts on ascending the throne was to build the two fortresses, Shechem to guard Mr. Ephraim, and Penuel to protect Gilead (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',12,25);">1Ki 12:25</a>). Baasha later pushed his frontier within a few miles of Jerusalem, fortifying Ramah to overawe Asa in his very capital. The long war which lasted through the reigns of Jeroboam, Nadab, Baasha and Elah, kings of Israel, was largely a war of sieges, one of them, that of Gibbethon, having apparently lasted 27 years (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',15,27);">1Ki 15:27</a>, compared with <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',16,15);">1Ki 16:15</a>).<P>With Omri there arose in Israel a powerful ruler whose name is mentioned with respect in the Assyrian monuments, which designate the kingdom of Israel Mat Bit Khumri, "the land of the house of Omri." He was the builder of Samaria which remained the capital of the Northern Kingdom till its fall in 722 BC. In excavations but recently carried on by the archaeological expedition of Harvard University, the walls of Omri\'s palace and fortress were laid bare, giving an impression of the great strength of the place.<P>While Solomon built the wall of Jerusalem, we read that Uzziah built towers at the corner gate, and at the valley gate, and at the turning of the wall, and fortified them (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',26,9);">2Ch 26:9</a>). Jotham his son, continued his father\'s labors in the further fortification of the city (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',27,3,4);">2Ch 27:3-4</a>). Hezekiah had good reason to add still further to the strength of the city, seeing that he had to bear the brunt of Sennacherib\'s expedition to the west. Sennacherib boasts that of Hezekiah\'s fortified towns, he captured 46, with innumerable fortresses besides (Schrader, Schrader, The Cuneiform Inscriptions and the Old Testament, I, 286), but he cannot tell that Jerusalem was among them, for it came through the ordeal unscathed. In the reign of Manasseh Jerusalem was captured and the king himself carried away to Nineveh, but on his repentance he was restored to the throne and set himself to strengthen the fortifications of the city (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',33,14);">2Ch 33:14</a>). The city was unable, however, to hold out against Nebuchadrezzar and his captains; for it was taken in 597 BC, and King Jehoiachin and the flower of the population were deported to Babylon. After a siege of two years it was again taken in 586 BC, and temple and city were destroyed, and the walls razed to the ground.<P>3. In the Period of the Return:<P>The patriotic labor of Nehemiah in the rebuilding of the wall of Jerusalem belongs properly to the history of the city (see <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=JERUSALEM">JERUSALEM</A>). In the Maccabean struggle, the Akra (1Macc 1:33; 3:45, etc.), the citadel, was long held by a Syrian garrison, and was in the end delivered up to the high priest by Demetrius (1Macc 10:32). Notable also still later was the castle of Antonia (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',22,24);">Ac 22:24</a>) on the site of the earlier castle of Nehemiah\'s day (<a onClick="return mV(\'Neh\',2,8);">Ne 2:8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Neh\',7,2);">7:2</a>).<P>III. In the Psalms and the Prophets.<P>1. The Psalms<P>Under the image of a fortress, or mountain fastness, inaccessible to any common foot, where there is perfect safety from enemies and persecutors, the Psalmist delights to express his confidence in God. Yahweh, in virtue of His righteous judgments, is a high tower to the downtrodden, a place of refuge and security (misgabh) to those who are in trouble (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',9,9);">Ps 9:9</a>). When he exults in the strength of God who has given him deliverance, he multiplies words to utter his confidence: "I love Thee, O Yahweh, my strength. Yahweh is my rock, and my fortress (metsudhah),...my God...my high tower (misgabh)" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',18,1,2);">Ps 18:1-2</a>). Thirteen times in the Psalms we find this word: <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',9,9);">Ps 9:9</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',18,2);">18:2</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',46,7,11);">46:7, 11</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',59,9,16,17);">59:9, 16-17</a> (where the King James Version translates "defence" and the Revised Version (British and American) "high tower"), etc. Elsewhere metsudhah is employed (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',31,2);">Ps 31:2</a>; literally, "house of fortresses"; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',91,2);">Ps 91:2</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',144,2);">144:2</a>). If we were at liberty to accept such psalms as <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',18,\'1-\');">18</a> and <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',59,\'1-\');">59</a> as Davidic, the appropriateness of them to the circumstances of the Shepherd King when persecuted by Saul, taking refuge in the cave of Adullam and enduring the perils and anxieties of an outlaw\'s life, would at once be apparent.<P>2. The Prophets:<P>Although Jeremiah has been called the weeping prophet, yet for the fearless fulfillment of his commission to a gainsaying people, God made him "a fortified city (\'ir mibhtsar), and an iron pillar, and brazen walls" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',1,18);">Jer 1:18</a>; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',6,27);">Jer 6:27</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',15,20);">15:20</a>). Hosea in the Northern Kingdom predicted the destruction of its "fortresses" (mibhtsar) by the invading Assyrians (<a onClick="return mV(\'Hos\',10,14);">10:14</a>; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Hos\',8,14);">8:14</a>). The prophets in proclaiming God\'s message to their day addressed themselves not only to Israel and Judah, but also to those great world-powers with which the Hebrew people had relations. In the oracles of the prophets to the nations<6E>to Egypt, Babylon, Assyria, Syria, Edom, and others<72>we obtain glimpses of great and fortified cities like No-amon (Thebes), Babylon, Nineveh, Damascus, whose natural defenses and added fortifications did not save them from capture and destruction. And the teaching of the prophets for the comfort of Israel and Judah is that Yahweh was a better defense to them than the great rivers of Assyria and Egypt were to those nations. When Nineveh was at the height of her pride, fierceness and worldly glory, Nahum asks her: "Art thou better than No-amon (Thebes of Egypt), that was situate among the rivers, that had the waters round about her; whose rampart (chel) was the sea (the Nile), and her wall (chomah) was of the sea?" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Nah\',3,8);">Na 3:8</a>). Of Nineveh itself we know that it was protected, not only by walls and fortresses of great strength, but also by canals and streams drawn round the city. Yet Nahum declares in his sublime apostrophe: "All thy fortresses shall be like figtrees with the first-ripe figs: if they be shaken, they fall into the mouth of the eater" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Nah\',3,12);">Na 3:12</a>). Babylon had walls whose strength and height, as described by Herodotus and other historians, were fabulous. Its great monarch Nebuchadrezzar was in his day the greatest ruler of the East, and Sir Henry Layard has told that scarcely a brick unearthed in the mounds of the great Babylonian plain was without his name. Yet when the day of reckoning came, the wall, said to be mountain-high, and 80 ft. thick, with its moat so broad that an arrow could not be shot over it, and all its elaborate works of defense, were as if they had not been; it surrendered to Cyrus without a blow being struck. It is in the visions of the prophets, in the universal peace which is to accompany the restoration of Israel, that we hear of "them that are at rest, that dwell securely, all of them dwelling without walls, and having neither bars nor gates" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',38,11);">Eze 38:11</a>). "In that day shall this song be sung in the land of Judah: We have a strong city; salvation will he appoint for walls and bulwarks" (chel) (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',26,1);">Isa 26:1</a>). "Violence shall no more be heard in thy land, desolation nor destruction within thy borders; but thou shalt call thy walls Salvation, and thy gates Praise" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',60,18);">Isa 60:18</a>). Building of fenced cities, with riding upon horses and military preparation, was a note of the false prophet, who urged alliances with foreign powers such as Assyria and Egypt, anal relied too much upon the material resources of the nation. The true prophet realized that the strength of the nation lay in God and urged the people to put their trust in Him (<a onClick="return mV(\'Hsa\',8,14);">Ho 8:14</a>). "Jerusalem," says Zechariah in the days of the Return, "shall be inhabited as villages without walls, by reason of the multitude of men and cattle therein. For I, saith Yahweh, will be unto her a wall of fire round about, and I will be the glory in the midst of her" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Zec\',2,4,5);">2:4,5</a>; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Zec\',8,4,5);">8:4,5</a>).<P>IV. In the New Testament.<P>1. In Paul\'s Epistles:<P>In a well-known passage (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',10,\'3-5\');">2Co 10:3-5</a>), Paul, as he often does, draws upon his knowledge of Roman methods of warfare, and introduces for the enforcement of great spiritual lessons the pulling down of "strong-holds" as the ultimate object of every campaign. The word employed (ochuromata) is the Greek equivalent of the Hebrew word commonly rendered "fortress" (mibhtsar). "The \'strongholds\' are the rock forts, such as those which once bristled along the coast of his native Cilicia and of which he must often have heard when his father told him how they were \'pulled down\' by the Romans in their wars against the pirates. Those \'high things that exalt themselves\'<27>those high eminences of the pride of Nature<72>occupied in force by hostile troops<70>had been a familiar experience in many wars throughout Asia Minor, while one of the grandest of all was the Acropolis that towered over Corinth" (Dean Howson, The Metaphors of Paul, 34f).<P>2. In the Acts of the Apostles:<P>From the stairs of the Castle of Antonia, Paul, by leave of Claudius Lysias, the commandant of the garrison at Jerusalem, in whose charge he was, addressed the excited crowd and told the story of his conversion. Antonia was the quarters, then, as it was in the time of our Lord, of the Roman garrison, which occupied the Jewish capital (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',21,37);">Ac 21:37</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',18,28);">Joh 18:28</a>); and the same site is to this day covered with a Turkish barracks.<P>3. In the Gospel History:<P>Although it is not mentioned by name, the gloomy fortress of Macherus on the east of the Dead Sea is believed to have been the scene of the imprisonment and murder of John the Baptist. The description of it given by Josephus (BJ, VII, vi, 1) shows it to have been a place of immense strength. "It was quite necessary that that fortress should be demolished lest it might draw away many into rebellion because of its strength; for the nature of the place was very capable of affording sure hope of safety to those who held it, and delay and fear to those who attacked it. For what was defended by a fort was itself a rocky hill, rising to a very great height, which circumstance alone made it very difficult to capture it. It was also so contrived by Nature that it could not easily be approached; for it is entrenched by ravines on all sides, so deep that the eye cannot reach their bottoms, nor are they easy to cross over, and it is quite impossible to fill them up with earth." Macherus, like the Herodium, Jotapata, Masada, figured largely in the tragic scenes of the Jewish War so graphically described by Josephus<P>LITERATURE.<P>Bliss and Macalister, Excavations in Palestine; Bliss, A Mound of Many Cities; Macalister, Bible Side-Lights from Mound of Gezer; PEFS for 1903-6, referring to Gezer; Driver, Modern Research as Illustrating the Bible; Vincent, Canaan d\'apres l\'exploration recente; Billerbeck, Der Festungsbau im alten Orient.``128';
isbe[3544]='Fortunatus`for-tu-na\'-tus (Phortounatos):<P>A Roman proper name turned into Gr; same as Latin adjective fortunatus, meaning "blest," or "fortunate." Found only once in the Bible (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',16,17);">1Co 16:17</a>). Fortunatus, with Stephanas and Achaicus, was an amabassador of the Corinthian church, whose presence at Ephesus refreshed the spirit of the apostle Paul.``1';
isbe[3545]='Fortune`for\'-tun (Gad): A god of Good Luck, possibly the Hyades.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ASTROLOGY">ASTROLOGY</a>`1';
isbe[3546]='Forty`for\'-ti (\'arba\'im; tessarakonta).`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=FOUR">FOUR</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=NUMBER">NUMBER</a>`1';
isbe[3547]='Forum`fo\'-rum:<P>the King James Version Appii Forum (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',28,15);">Ac 28:15</a>), is in the Revised Version (British and American) Market of Appius (see <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=APPII+FORUM">APPII FORUM</a>).``1';
isbe[3548]='Forward; Forwardness`for\'-werd for\'-werd-nes (hale\'ah, naca\'; spoudaios):<P>As an adverb "forward" has the meaning of "onward" in space or time, or in the movement of affairs. As an adjective it has the sense of "readiness," "willingness," etc. The adverb only is found in the Old Testament. It is the translation of hale\'ah, "distance," "onward"; in space (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',32,19);">Nu 32:19</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',10,3);">1Sa 10:3</a>); in time (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',39,22);">Eze 39:22</a>, "from that day and forward"; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',43,27);">Eze 43:27</a>); once of halakh, "to go on" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',26,13);">Ge 26:13</a>, "went forward," the King James Version margin, Hebrew "went going," the Revised Version (British and American) "grew more and more"); twice of ma\'al, "above," "upward" (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',16,13);">1Sa 16:13</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',30,25);">30:25</a>, "from that day forward"); once of ya\'al, "to cause to go up," "advance" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',30,13);">Job 30:13</a>, "They set forward (advance or help on) my calamity"); twice of lephanim, "to the front" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',7,24);">Jer 7:24</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',10,22);">Eze 10:22</a>, "They went every one straight forward," literally, "on the side of their face"); once of qedhem, "before" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',23,8);">Job 23:8</a>, "Behold, I go forward, but he is not there"); once with nakhah, "to smite" (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',3,24);">2Ki 3:24</a>); frequently in Numbers, and once in Exodus, of naca\', "to lift up," "remove," "journey" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',14,15);">Ex 14:15</a>, "Speak unto the children of Israel, that they go forward"; <a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',1,51);">Nu 1:51</a>, "when the tabernacle setteth forward"; <a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',2,24);">Nu 2:24</a> the King James Version, "They shall go forward," etc.); it is also the translation of natsach (Piel), "to be over," "to take the lead," "to superintend" (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',23,4);">1Ch 23:4</a>, "to set forward (to carry onward, to advance) the work of the house of the Lord," the King James Version margin and text of the Revised Version (British and American) "to oversee"; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',34,12);">2Ch 34:12</a>, "to set it forward," the Revised Version (British and American) retains, margin, "to preside over it"; <a onClick="return mV(\'Ezr\',3,8);">Ezr 3:8</a> margin, "set forward the work"). This word means also "to lead" in music, to precent; hence, in the title of many psalms, la-menatseach, "For the chief musician." Proerchomai, "to go forward," etc., is translated "went forward" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',14,35);">Mr 14:35</a>); propempo, "to send forward" (<a onClick="return mV(\'3Jo\',1,6);">3Joh 1:6</a>, "bring forward," the Revised Version (British and American) "set forward"); proballo, "to throw or put forward" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',19,33);">Ac 19:33</a>, "putting him forward"); as adjective it is the translation of thelo, "to wish," "will" (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',8,10);">2Co 8:10</a>, "to be forward a year ago"; the King James Version margin (Greek) "willing," the Revised Version (British and American) "to will"); of spoudaios, "speedy," "earnest" (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',8,17);">2Co 8:17</a>, "being more forward," the Revised Version (British and American) "very earnest"); of spoudazo, "to make haste," "to be earnest" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gal\',2,10);">Ga 2:10</a>, "which I also was forward to do," the Revised Version (British and American) "zealous to do").<P>"Forward" occurs several times in Apocrypha, e.g. 1Esdras 1:27, "The Lord is with me hasting me forward" (epispeudo); 2Esdras 3:6, "before ever the earth came forward" (adventaret), meaning, perhaps, before it was ready for planting.<P>Forwardness is the translation of spoude, "speed," "zeal," etc. (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',8,8);">2Co 8:8</a>, the Revised Version (British and American) "earnestness"); of prothumia "readiness of mind" (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',9,2);">2Co 9:2</a>, "the forwardness of your mind," the Revised Version (British and American) "your readiness"; The <span class="noTag">Wisdom of Solomon 14:17</span>, "that by their forwardness (spoude) they might flatter," the Revised Version (British and American) "zeal").<P>For "forward" the Revised Version (British and American) has "forth" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',2,24);">Nu 2:24</a>; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',16,11);">1Co 16:11</a>); for "go forward" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',10,5);">Nu 10:5</a>), "take their journey"; for "set forward" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',21,10);">Nu 21:10</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',22,1);">22:1</a>), "journeyed"; "forward" for "ready" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',1,41);">De 1:41</a>), for "forth" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',25,6);">Pr 25:6</a>), for "farther" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',26,39);">Mt 26:39</a>); "put forward" for "appointed" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',1,23);">Ac 1:23</a>): "set forward according to" for "took" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',10,12);">Nu 10:12</a>); "set forward" for "went" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',10,14,34);">Nu 10:14, 34</a>), for "departed" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',10,33);">Nu 10:33</a>); "set me forward" for "bring me" (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',16,6);">1Co 16:6</a>).``185';
isbe[3549]='Foul`foul (raphas; akdthartos):<P>The verb "to foul" (defile) occurs as the translation of raphas, "to trample" or "muddle" (streams) (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',32,2);">Eze 32:2</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',34,18);">34:18</a>); of chalmar, "to burn," "to be red" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',16,16);">Job 16:16</a>, "My face is foul with weeping," the American Standard Revised Version and the English Revised Version, margin "red"); of mirpas, "a treading" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',34,19);">Eze 34:19</a>). The adjective is the translation of akathartos, "unclean," "impure," "wicked" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',9,25);">Mr 9:25</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',18,2);">Re 18:2</a>, "foul spirit," the Revised Version (British and American) "unclean"), and of cheimon, "winter," "stormy or foul weather" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',16,3);">Mt 16:3</a>). the Revised Version (British and American) has "The rivers shall become foul" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',19,6);">Isa 19:6</a>) instead of the King James Version "They shall turn the rivers far away," the English Revised Version "The rivers shall stink."``185';
isbe[3550]='Foundation`foun-da\'-shun:<P>In Hebrew the words for "foundation" are mostly derivatives from yacadh, "to found," and in Greek two words are used: one, katabole, of "foundation of the world" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',13,35);">Mr 13:35</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',15,34);">15:34</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',11,50);">Lu 11:50</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',17,24);">Joh 17:24</a>, etc.); the other, themelios, of the foundation of a building (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',6,48,49);">Lu 6:48-49</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',14,29);">14:29</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',16,26);">Ac 16:26</a>, etc.), in which sense it is also used metaphorically in various connections (Christ the foundation of the church, <a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',3,11);">1Co 3:11</a>; or the apostles and prophets the foundation, with Christ as corner-stone, <a onClick="return mV(\'Eph\',2,20);">Eph 2:20</a>; the foundation of repentance, <a onClick="return mV(\'Hbr\',6,1);">Heb 6:1</a>, etc.). In <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',11,3);">Ps 11:3</a>, "if the foundations be destroyed," the Hebrew word is shath. In <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',50,15);">Jer 50:15</a>, the Revised Version (British and American) reads "bulwarks" for "foundations"; conversely in <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',89,14);">Ps 89:14</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',97,2);">97:2</a>, for the King James Version "habitation," the Revised Version (British and American) reads "foundation," and in <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',6,4);">Isa 6:4</a> for the King James Version "posts," reads "foundations."``132';
isbe[3551]='Founder`foun\'-der (from tsaraph): A worker in molten metal (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',17,4);">Jud 17:4</a>, etc.).<P>The word in the King James Version in <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',10,9,14);">Jer 10:9, 14</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',51,17);">51:17</a> is rendered in the Revised Version (British and American) "goldsmith," and in <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',6,29);">6:29</a> by a paraphrase, "They go on refining."`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=REFINER">REFINER</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=GOLDSMITH">GOLDSMITH</a>`1';
isbe[3552]='Fountain`foun\'-tin, foun\'-tan:<P>In a country where no rain falls for half of the year, springs sume an importance unknown in more favored lands. In both eastern and western Palestine and even in Lebanon there are many villages which depend entirely upon reservoirs or cisterns of rain water. Others are situated along the courses of the few perennial streams. But wherever a spring exists it is very apt to be the nucleus of a village. It may furnish sufficient water to be used in irrigation, in which case the gardens surrounding the village become an oasis in the midst of the parched land. Or there may be a tiny stream which barely suffices for drinking water, about which the village women and girls sit and talk waiting their turns to fill their jars, sometimes until far in the night. The water of the village fountain is often conveyed by a covered conduit for some distance from the source to a convenient spot in the village where an arch is built up, under which the water gushes out. See <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=CISTERN">CISTERN</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=SPRING">SPRING</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=WELL">WELL</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=EN-">EN-</a>, and place-names compounded with <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=EN-">EN-</a>.<P>Figurative:<P>(1) of God (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',36,9);">Ps 36:9</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',2,13);">Jer 2:13</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',17,13);">17:13</a>);<P>(2) of Divine pardon and purification, with an obvious Messianic reference (<a onClick="return mV(\'Zec\',13,1);">Zec 13:1</a>);<P>(3) of wisdom and godliness (<a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',13,14);">Pr 13:14</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',14,27);">14:27</a>);<P>(4) of wives (<a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',5,18);">Pr 5:18</a>);<P>(5) of children (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',33,28);">De 33:28</a>; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',68,26);">Ps 68:26</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',5,16);">Pr 5:16</a>);<P>(6) of prosperity (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',107,35);">Ps 107:35</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',114,8);">114:8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Hsa\',13,15);">Ho 13:15</a>);<P>(7) of the heart (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',12,6);">Ec 12:6</a>; see <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=CISTERN">CISTERN</a>);<P>(8) of life everlasting (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',7,17);">Re 7:17</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',21,6);">21:6</a>).``37';
isbe[3553]='Fountain Gate``<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=JERUSALEM,+1">JERUSALEM</a>`1';
isbe[3554]='Four`for (\'arba\'; tessares): "Four" (cardinal number) was a sacred and complete number with the Hebrews, as well as with several other peoples. It occurs very frequently in the Old Testament and the New Testament.<P>(1) It indicates completeness. We have the four rivers of Paradise (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',2,10);">Ge 2:10</a>); the four winds of heaven (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',37,9);">Eze 37:9</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Dan\',7,2);">Da 7:2</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Dan\',8,8);">8:8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Dan\',11,4);">11:4</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Zec\',6,5);">Zec 6:5</a>, the Revised Version, margin "spirits"; 2Esdras 13:5); "the four winds" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',24,31);">Mt 24:31</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',13,27);">Mr 13:27</a>); "the four corners of the earth" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',11,12);">Isa 11:12</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',7,1);">Re 7:1</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',20,8);">20:8</a>, the King James Version "quarters"); "the four corners of the house" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',1,19);">Job 1:19</a>); Jephthah\'s daughter was bewailed four days a year (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',11,40);">Jud 11:40</a>); "four cities" are several times mentioned in Joshua in the allotment of inheritances (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',19,7);">19:7</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',21,18);">21:18</a>, etc.); Nehemiah\'s enemies sent to him "four times" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Neh\',6,4);">Ne 6:4</a>); "four kinds" (the Revised Version, margin "families" of destroyers were threatened, <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',15,3);">Jer 15:3</a>); Yahweh\'s "four sore judgments" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',14,21);">Eze 14:21</a>); "four generations" were seen by Job (<a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',42,16);">Job 42:16</a>).<P>(2) "Four" is frequent in prophetic visions: Daniel saw "four...beasts" arise, representing four kings (<a onClick="return mV(\'Dan\',7,3,17);">Dan 7:3,17</a>); "four notable horns" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Dan\',8,8,22);">Dan 8:8, 22</a>; compare 2Esdras 11:39); "four gates" (2Esdras 3:19; four wings, <span class="noTag">12:2</a> the King James Version); "four horns" were seen by Zechariah, as the powers that had scattered Israel, and "four smiths" (Revised Version) as powers that would cast the four horns down (<a onClick="return mV(\'Zec\',1,\'18-21\');">Zec 1:18-21</a>); "four chariots and...horses" represented the "four spirits," the King James Version and the Revised Version, margin (better than "winds"), that went "forth from standing before the Lord of all the earth" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Zec\',6,\'1-5\');">Zech 6:1-5</a>); in the visions of Ezekiel, "four living creatures," each with four faces, four wings, etc., were the bearers of the throne of God (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',1,5);">Eze 1:5</a>f; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',1,23);">23</a>); so, in the visions of John there were "four living creatures" before and around the throne (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',4,6);">Re 4:6</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',5,6,8,14);">5:6, 8, 14</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',6,1);">6:1</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',15,7);">15:7</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',19,4);">19:4</a>); John saw "four angels" of destruction loosed for their work (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',9,14);">Re 9:14</a>).<P>(3) "Four" occurs frequently in the measurements of the sacred buildings, etc.<P class="in15">(a) of the tabernacle (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',25,\'1-\');">Ex 25</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',26,\'1-\');">26</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',27,\'1-\');">27</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',28,17);">28:17</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',36,\'1-\');">36</a>, etc.);<P class="in15">(b) of Solomon\'s temple (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',7,2);">1Ki 7:2</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',9,24);">1Ch 9:24</a>);<P class="in15">(c) of Ezekiel\'s temple (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',40,41);">Eze 40:41</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',41,5);">41:5</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',42,20);">42:20</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',43,14);">43:14</a>).<P>(4) "Four" is used as an alternative with "three" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',30,15,18,21,24,29);">Pr 30:15, 18, 21, 24, 29</a>); we have "three or four" (2Esdras 16:29,31); "the third and...the fourth generation" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',20,5);">Ex 20:5</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',34,7);">34:7</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',14,18);">Nu 14:18</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',5,9);">De 5:9</a>).<P>(5) Ten times four, or forty is also a special and sacred number, e.g. forty years did Israel eat manna (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',16,35);">Ex 16:35</a>); forty years in the wilderness (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',14,33);">Nu 14:33</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',32,13);">32:13</a>); "the land had rest forty years" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',3,11);">Jud 3:11</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',5,31);">5:31</a>); Israel was delivered unto the hands of the Philistines for forty years (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',13,1);">Jud 13:1</a>); Eli judged Israel forty years (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',4,18);">1Sa 4:18</a>); Moses was forty years old when he visited his brethren (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',7,23);">Ac 7:23</a>); the flood continued for "forty days and forty nights" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',7,4);">Ge 7:4</a>); Moses was in the Mount "forty days and forty nights" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',24,18);">Ex 24:18</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',34,28);">34:28</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',9,9);">De 9:9</a>); Jesus fasted in the desert forty days and nights (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',4,2);">Mt 4:2</a>); He remained with His disciples forty days after His resurrection (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',1,3);">Ac 1:3</a>).<P>(6) Fourscore is also frequent (shemonim) (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',7,7);">Ex 7:7</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',3,30);">Jud 3:30</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',41,5);">Jer 41:5</a>, etc.; ogdoekonta, <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',2,37);">Lu 2:37</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',16,7);">16:7</a>).<P>(7) Four hundred represents a large number, e.g. the years of the oppression in Egypt (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',15,13);">Ge 15:13</a>); Esau\'s company (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',33,1);">Ge 33:1</a>); the men with David (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',22,2);">1Sa 22:2</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',25,13);">25:13</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',30,10,17);">30:10, 17</a>); the prophets of Baal "four hundred and fifty," of Asherah, "four hundred" (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',18,19,22);">1Ki 18:19, 22</a>); the prophets of Israel (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',22,6);">1Ki 22:6</a>). Four thousand represents a larger number, e.g. the musicians and porters of Solomon\'s temple (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',23,5);">1Ch 23:5</a>); the stalls for horses in Solomon\'s stables (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',9,25);">2Ch 9:25</a>); the Assassins who made insurrection under an Egyptian (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',21,38);">Ac 21:38</a>); Christ fed "four thousand men, besides women and children" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',15,38);">Mt 15:38</a>). Four hundred thousand represents a very large number, e.g. the congregation of Israel that gathered at Mizpah, "four hundred thousand footmen that drew sword" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',20,2,17);">Jud 20:2, 17</a>); Abijah\'s army (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',13,3);">2Ch 13:3</a>; Jeroboam\'s, twice that number).<P>(8) The fourth part also frequently occurs (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',29,40);">Ex 29:40</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',23,13);">Le 23:13</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',23,10);">Nu 23:10</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',6,8);">Re 6:8</a>, etc.).``185';
isbe[3555]='Four Hundred``<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=FOUR">FOUR</a>`1';
isbe[3556]='Four Thousand``<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=FOUR">FOUR</a>`1';
isbe[3557]='Fourfold`for-fold:<P>Occurs but twice in English Versions: <a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',12,6);">2Sa 12:6</a>, "He shall restore the lamb fourfold"; and <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',19,8);">Lu 19:8</a> the King James Version, "If I have wrongfully exacted ought...I restore fourfold." From this statement of Zaccheus we are to understand that fourfold the amount of that which was stolen was the restoration the law required of a thief. This was the extreme penalty the law imposed. In some cases double the amount was to be restored (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',22,4,7);">Ex 22:4, 7</a>); in others, a fifth of its value was added to the thing restored (<a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',6,5);">Le 6:5</a>); still again, an amount equal to that taken was to be restored (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',12,3);">1Sa 12:3</a>).``1';
isbe[3558]='Fourscore`for\'-skor.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=FOUR">FOUR</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=NUMBER">NUMBER</a>`1';
isbe[3559]='Foursquare`for\'-skwar (rabha\'; tetragonos):<P>"Foursquare," meaning equal in length and breadth, not round, is the translation of rabha\' (from obsolete rebha\', "four"); it occurs in the description of the altar of burnt offering (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',27,1);">Ex 27:1</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',38,1);">38:1</a>); of the altar of incense (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',30,2);">Ex 30:2</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',37,25);">37:25</a>); of the breastplate of the high priest (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',28,16);">Ex 28:16</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',39,9);">39:9</a>); of the panels of the gravings upon the mouth of the brazen or molten sea in Solomon\'s temple (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',7,31);">1Ki 7:31</a>); of the inner court of Ezekiel\'s temple (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',40,47);">Eze 40:47</a>); of "the holy oblation" of the city of Ezekiel\'s vision (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',48,20);">Eze 48:20</a>, rebhi\'i, "fourth"); of the new Jerusalem of John\'s vision (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',21,16);">Re 21:16</a>, tetragonos), and conveys the idea of perfect symmetry. In the King James Version marginof <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',6,31);">1Ki 6:31</a>, we have "five-square," square being formerly used for equal-sided, as it still is in "three-square file."``185';
isbe[3560]='Fourteen`for\'-ten.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=NUMBER">NUMBER</a>`1';
isbe[3561]='Fourth Part``<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=FOUR">FOUR</a>`1';
isbe[3562]='Fowl`foul (\'oph; peteinon): The word is now generally restricted to the larger, especially the edible birds, but formerly it denoted all flying creatures; in <a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',11,20);">Le 11:20</a> the King James Version we have even, "all fowls that creep, going upon all four," <a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',11,21);">Le 11:21</a>, "every flying creeping thing that goeth upon all four."<P>1. Old Testament Terms and References:<P>The word most frequently translated "fowl" is \'oph from \'uph, "to cover," hence, wing; it is used collectively for birds and fowl in general (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',1,20);">Ge 1:20</a>, etc.; <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',2,19,20);">2:19,20</a>, etc.); \'ayit (from \'ut, "to rush") means a ravenous beasts; or bird of prey, used collectively of ravenous birds (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',15,11);">Ge 15:11</a> the King James Version; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',18,6);">Isa 18:6</a> the King James Version "fowls"; <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',28,7);">Job 28:7</a>, "a path which no fowl knoweth," the Revised Version (British and American) "no bird of prey"); in <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',46,11);">Isa 46:11</a> it is used as a symbol of a conqueror (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',12,9);">Jer 12:9</a>, "bird," "birds of prey"; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',39,4);">Eze 39:4</a>, "ravenous birds"); tsippor, Aramaic tsippar (from tsaphar, "to twitter or chirp"), "a chirper," denotes a small bird or sparrow (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',4,17);">De 4:17</a> the King James Version; <a onClick="return mV(\'Neh\',5,18);">Ne 5:18</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Dan\',4,14);">Da 4:14</a>); to give the carcasses of men to the fowls (birds) of the air was an image of destruction (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',28,26);">De 28:26</a> the King James Version; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',17,44,46);">1Sa 17:44, 46</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',79,2);">Ps 79:2</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',7,33);">Jer 7:33</a>, etc.); barburim, rendered (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',4,23);">1Ki 4:23</a>) "fatted fowl" (among the provisions for Solomon\'s table for one day), is probably a mimetic word, like Greek barbaros, Latin murmuro, English babble, perhaps denoting geese from their cackle (Gesenius, from barar, "to cleanse," referring to their white plumage; but other derivations and renderings are given). They might have been ducks or swans. They could have been guineas or pigeons. The young of the ostrich was delicious food, and no doubt when Solomon\'s ships brought peafowl they also brought word that they were a delicacy for a king\'s table. The domestic fowl was not common so early in Palestine, but it may have been brought by Solomon with other imports from the East; in New Testament times chickens were common; ba\'al kanaph, "owner of a wing," is used for a bird of any kind in <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',1,17);">Pr 1:17</a>. "In vain is the net spread in the sight of any bird," the King James Version margin Hebrew, "in the eyes of everything that hath a wing."<P>2. In the Levitical Law:<P>In the Levitical law fowls (birds) were distinguished as clean and unclean (<a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',11,13);">Le 11:13</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',14,\'11-20\');">De 14:11-20</a>; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',8,20);">Ge 8:20</a>); the first were allowed to be eaten because they fed on grains, seeds, and vegetables; the second were forbidden because they fed on flesh and carrion.<P>3. New Testament References and Illustrative Uses:<P>In the New Testament the common word for "fowl" is peteinon, "winged fowl." "The fowls of the air" (the Revised Version (British and American) "the birds of the heaven") are pointed to by our Lord as examples of the providential care of God (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',6,26);">Mt 6:26</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',12,24);">Lu 12:24</a>); in another connection the "sparrows" (strouthion) sold cheap, probably for food, are so employed (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',10,29);">Mt 10:29</a>, "Are not two sparrows sold for a penny?" <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',12,6);">Lu 12:6</a>, "five...for two pence"); their quickly picking up seeds from the ground is made to illustrate the influences which render "the word" powerless (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',13,4);">Mt 13:4</a>); their being sheltered in the branches, the growth of the kingdom (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',13,32);">Mt 13:32</a>, peteinon); the hen\'s (ornis) sheltering care for her chickens, His desire to protect and save Jerusalem (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',23,37);">Mt 23:37</a>; compare 2Esdras 1:30; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rth\',2,12);">Ru 2:12</a>); the fowls were shown in vision to Peter as among the things made clean by God (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',10,12);">Ac 10:12</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',11,6);">11:6</a>); in <a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',18,2);">Re 18:2</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',19,17,21);">19:17, 21</a>, orneon, "bird," "fowl," a carnivorous bird (the Revised Version (British and American) "bird"), is the representative of desolation and of destruction.<P>For "fowls" the American Standard Revised Version has "birds" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',6,7,20);">Ge 6:7, 20</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',7,3);">7:3</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',20,25);">Le 20:25</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',10,12);">Ac 10:12</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',11,6);">11:6</a>; with the English Revised Version <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',6,26);">Mt 6:26</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',13,4);">13:4</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',4,4,32);">Mr 4:4, 32</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',8,5);">Lu 8:5</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',12,24);">12:24</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',13,19);">13:19</a>); for "every feathered fowl" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',39,17);">Eze 39:17</a>), the Revised Version (British and American) has "the birds of every sort"; for "all fowls that creep" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',11,20);">Le 11:20</a>) and for "every flying creeping thing" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',11,21);">Le 11:21</a>), "all winged creeping things."``185';
isbe[3563]='Fowl, Fatted`See <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=FOWL">FOWL</a>.``1';
isbe[3564]='Fowler`foul\'-er (yoqesh): A professional birdcatcher. In the days previous to firearms, birds were captured with nets spread on the ground, in traps and snares. There was a method of taking young birds from a nest, raising them by hand, and when they had become very tame, they were confined in hidden cages so that their voices would call others of their kind to the spot and they could be killed by arrows of concealed bowmen or the use of the throw-stick (Ecclesiasticus 11:30) This was a stick 1 1/2 feet in length and 1/2 inches in diameter, hurled with a rotary motion at the legs of the birds and was very effective when thrown into flocks of ground birds, such as partridge or quail, especially if the birds were running up hill. There was also a practice of sewing a captured bird\'s eyelids together and confining it so that its cries would call large numbers of birds through curiosity and they could then be taken in the several ways mentioned. The fowlers supplied the demand for doves and other birds used for caged pets, and furnished the market with wild pigeons and doves for sacrifice and such small birds as were used for food. <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',91,3);">Ps 91:3</a>: "For he will deliver thee from the snare of the fowler. And from the deadly pestilence."<P>This is David\'s promise that the Almighty will deliver us from the evil plans laid to ruin us, as a bird sometimes in its struggles slips the hair and escapes from the "<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=SNARE">snare</a>" (which see) set for it. <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',124,7);">Ps 124:7</a>:<P class="in15">"Our soul is escaped as a bird out of the snare of the fowlers:<br>The snare is broken, and we are escaped."<P>Here is the fulfillment of the former promise in a cry of rejoicing. Sometimes the snare held fast, sometimes it broke; then the joy in the heart of a freed man was like the wild exultation in the heart of the escaping bird. <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',6,5);">Pr 6:5</a>:<P class="in15">"Deliver thyself as a roe from the hands. of the hunter.<br>And as a bird from the hand of the fowler."<P>With methods so primitive as these for taking birds, it must have occurred frequently that a stunned, wounded or entrapped bird slipped even from the hand that held it and made good its escape.<P><a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',5,26);">Jer 5:26</a>: "For among my people are found wicked men: they watch, as fowlers lie in wait; they set a trap, they catch men." Here is the plain comparison strongly drawn between wicked men entrapping their fellows and fowlers taking unsuspecting birds.<P>The last reference is in <a onClick="return mV(\'Hsa\',9,8);">Ho 9:8</a>: "Ephraim was a watchman with my God: as for the prophet, a fowler\'s snare is in all his ways, and enmity in the house of his God." Wherever he goes, the prophet is in danger of being trapped.``167';
isbe[3565]='Fox`(shu\'al; compare Arabic tha\'lab (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',15,4);">Jud 15:4</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Neh\',4,3);">Ne 4:3</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',63,10);">Ps 63:10</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Sgs\',2,15);">So 2:15</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Lam\',5,18);">La 5:18</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',13,4);">Eze 13:4</a>); alopex (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',8,20);">Mt 8:20</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',9,58);">Lu 9:58</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',13,32);">13:32</a>)): The foxes of different parts of Europe and Western Asia differ more or less from each other, and some authors have given the local tyes distinct specific names. Tristram, for instance, distinguishes the Egyptian fox, Vulpes nilotica, of Southern Palestine, and the tawny fox, Vulpes flavescens, of the north and east It is possible that the range of the desert fox, Vulpes leucopus, of southwestern Asia may also reach Syria. We have, however, the authority of the Royal Natural History for considering all these as merely local races of one species, the common fox, Vulpes alopex or Canis vulpes. The natives of Syria and Palestine do not always distinguish the fox and jackal although the two animals are markedly different. The jackal and wolf also are frequently confounded.<P>See <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=DRAGON">DRAGON</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=JACKAL">JACKAL</A>.<P>In <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',63,9);">Ps 63:9</a>f we have, "Those that seek my soul, to destroy it,...shall be given over to the power of the sword: they shall be a portion for foxes" (shu\'alim). It has been thought that the jackal is meant here (Revised Version margin), and that may well be, though it is also true that the fox does not refuse carrion. In the Revised Version, margin, "jackal" is suggested in two other passages, though why is not clear, since the rendering "fox" seems quite appropriate in both. They are <a onClick="return mV(\'Neh\',4,3);">Ne 4:3</a>, ".... if a fox go up, he shall break down their stone wall," and <a onClick="return mV(\'Lam\',5,17);">La 5:17</a>f; ".... our eyes are dim; for the mountain of Zion which is desolate: the foxes walk upon it." the Revised Version, margin also has "jackals" in <a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',15,4);">Jud 15:4</a>f; where Samson "caught three hundred foxes...and put a firebrand in the midst between every two tails...and let them go into the standing grain of the Philistines, and burnt up both the shocks and the standing grain, and also the oliveyards." Jackals are probably more numerous than foxes, but the substitution does not appreciably diminish the difficulties in the way of any natural explanation of the story. In <a onClick="return mV(\'Sgs\',2,15);">So 2:15</a> we have a reference to the fondness of the fox for grapes. In <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',8,20);">Mt 8:20</a> and <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',9,58);">Lu 9:58</a> Jesus says in warning to a would-be follower, "The foxes have holes, and the birds of the heaven have nests; but the Son of man hath not where to lay his head." Foxes differ from most of the Canidae in burrowing holes for their lairs, unless indeed they take possession of the burrow of another animal, such as the badger. In <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',13,32);">Lu 13:32</a> Jesus compares Herod to a fox.``37';
isbe[3566]='Fragment`frag\'-ment (klasma): "Fragment," a piece broken off, occurs only in the plural, in the accounts of the miracles of the Loaves in the Gospels and references thereto. It is the translation of klasma (from klao, "to break"), "a piece broken off" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',14,20);">Mt 14:20</a> the King James Version); "broken meat" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',15,37);">Mt 15:37</a>).<P>The Revised Version (British and American) has in each instance "broken pieces." The change is important because it shows that the pieces left over were not mere fragments or crumbs left by the people after eating, but some of the original pieces into which it is said in all the synoptic narratives and references Jesus "broke" the "loaves," which, being thin cakes, were usually broken before distribution; hence, the phrase, "breaking of bread." See Hastings, Dictionary of the Bible (five volumes), under the word "Fragment"; Weymouth translates "broken portions," namely, "those into which the Lord had broken the loaves; not mere scraps or crumbs."``185';
isbe[3567]='Frame`fram:<P>(1) yetser (from root yatsar, "to knead," mold with the fingers): "For he knoweth our frame; he remembereth that we are dust" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',103,14);">Ps 103:14</a>).<P>(2) \'erekh (from root \'arakh, "to put in order," "to set in a row," "to arrange"): "goodly frame" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',41,12);">Job 41:12</a>, the King James Version "goodly proportion").<P>(3) \'otsem "bony frame" "body": "My frame was not hidden from thee, when I was made in secret" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',139,15);">Ps 139:15</a>), the King James Version "my substance," the King James Version margin "my strength, or, my body."<P>See also <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=BONE;+BONES">BONE</a>.<P>(4) mibhneh, "building, frame" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',40,2);">Eze 40:2</a>, "frame of a city").<P>(5) nathan, "to give," "to direct": "They will not frame their doings" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Hsa\',5,4);">Ho 5:4</a>, the King James Version and the Revised Version, margin).<P>(6) sunarmologeo, "to fit or join closely together" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eph\',2,21);">Eph 2:21</a>).<P>(7) katartizo, "to fit out," "make fit," "adjust" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Hbr\',11,3);">Heb 11:3</a>).``106';
isbe[3568]='Frankincense`frants\'-in-sens (lebhonah, from root meaning "whiteness," referring to the milky color of the fresh juice: <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',30,34);">Ex 30:34</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',2,1);">Le 2:1</a>f; <a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',2,15);">15</a>f; <a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',5,11);">5:11</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',6,15);">6:15</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',24,7);">24:7</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',5,15);">Nu 5:15</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',9,29);">1Ch 9:29</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Neh\',13,5,9);">Ne 13:5, 9</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Sgs\',3,6);">So 3:6</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Sgs\',4,6,14);">4:6, 14</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',43,23);">Isa 43:23</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',60,6);">60:6</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',66,3);">66:3</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',6,20);">Jer 6:20</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',17,26);">17:26</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',41,5);">41:5</a>; translated in the last six references "incense" in the King James Version, but correctly in the Revised Version (British and American); libanos: <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',2,11);">Mt 2:11</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',18,13);">Re 18:13</a>. The English word is derived from old French franc encens, i.e. "pure incense"): The common frankincense of the pharmacopeas is a gum derived from the common fir, but the frankincense of the Jews, as well as of the Greeks and Romans, is a substance now called Olibanum (from the Arabic el luban), a product of certain trees of the genus Boswellia (Natural Order, Amyridaceae), growing on the limestone rocks of south Arabia and Somali-land (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',60,6);">Isa 60:6</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',6,20);">Jer 6:20</a>). The most important species are B. Carteri and B. Frereana. Some of the trees grow to a considerable height and send down their roots to extraordinary depths. The gum is obtained by incising the bark,<P>and is collected in yellowish, semitransparent tears, readily pulverized; it has a nauseous taste. It is used for making incense for burning in churches and in Indian temples, as it was among the Jews (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',30,34);">Ex 30:34</a>). See <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=INCENSE">INCENSE</a>. It is often associated with myrrh (<a onClick="return mV(\'Sgs\',3,6);">So 3:6</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Sgs\',4,6);">4:6</a>) and with it was made an offering to the infant Saviour (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',2,11);">Mt 2:11</a>). A specially "pure" kind, lebhonah zakkah, was presented with the shewbread (<a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',24,7);">Le 24:7</a>).``117';
isbe[3569]='Frankly`frank\'-li (charizomai):<P>"Frankly" in the sense of "freely," "readily," "graciously," occurs only in the translation of charizomai, properly "to gratify," "to do that which is grateful or pleasing," "to forgive" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',7,42);">Lu 7:42</a>, "He frankly forgave them both," the Revised Version (British and American) has simply "forgave"; the same word is translated in <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',7,43);">Lu 7:43</a>, the King James Version and the Revised Version (British and American), "forgave," in <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',7,21);">Lu 7:21</a> the King James Version it is "gave," the Revised Version (British and American) "bestowed," granted to see). It occurs in the New Testament only in Luke and Paul.``1';
isbe[3570]='Fray`fra (haradh, "to make afraid," "cause to tremble": the King James Version of <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',28,26);">De 28:26</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',7,33);">Jer 7:33</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Zec\',1,21);">Zec 1:21</a>; the Revised Version (British and American) "frighten," "terrify").`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=WAR;+WARFARE">WAR</a>`1';
isbe[3571]='Freckled Spot`frek\'-\'-ld, (bohaq; Septuagint alphos, called in the Revised Version (British and American) "a tetter," and described as a bright shining spot (beharoth lebhenoth):<P>These white eruptions did not render the person so marked ceremonially unclean (<a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',13,39);">Le 13:39</a>). This form of skin disease is described by Hippocrates as usually of no great importance and indicative of a sluggishness of body; it is probably some form of local psoriasis. There is a cognate modern Arabic word applied to a facial eczematous eruption. For other references to skin diseases`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=LEPROSY">LEPROSY</a>`1';
isbe[3572]='Free; Freedom``<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=CHOICE">CHOICE</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=WILL">WILL</a>`1';
isbe[3573]='Freedman; Freeman`fred\'-man, fre\'-man: The term occurs in <a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',7,22);">1Co 7:22</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Col\',3,11);">Col 3:11</a>, and <a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',6,15);">Re 6:15</a>, and represents two slightly different words. In <a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',7,22);">1Co 7:22</a> the word is apeleutheros, "a freeman," one who was born a slave and has received freedom. In this case it refers to spiritual freedom. He that was in bondage to sin has been presented with spiritual freedom by the Lord. In <a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',6,15);">Re 6:15</a> the word is simply eleutheros, "a free man" as opposed to a slave.``1';
isbe[3574]='Freely`fre\'-li (chinnam, nedhabhah; dorean parrhesiazomai):<P>"Freely" occurs in three senses:ts two slightly different words. In <a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',7,22);">1Co 7:22</a> the word is apeleutheros, "a freeman," one who was born a slave and has received freedom. In this case it refers to spiritual freedom. He that was in bondage to sin has been presented with spiritual freedom by the Lord. In <a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',6,15);">Re 6:15</a> the word is simply eleutheros, "a free man" as opposed to a slave.<P>(1) Gratis, for nothing (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',11,5);">Nu 11:5</a>, chinnam, "for nought," "the fish which we did eat in Egypt freely," the Revised Version (British and American) "for nought"); <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',10,8);">Mt 10:8</a>, dorean, "Freely ye have received, freely give," the Revised Version (British and American) omits "have"; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',3,24);">Ro 3:24</a>, "being justified freely by his grace"; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',11,7);">2Co 11:7</a>, "I have preached to you the gospel freely," the Revised Version (British and American) "for nought"; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',21,6);">Re 21:6</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',22,17);">22:17</a>, "Take the water of life freely"; charizomai (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',8,32);">Ro 8:32</a>) is translated "freely give," ta charisthenta (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',2,12);">1Co 2:12</a>), "the things that are freely given," the American Standard Revised Version has "were" for "are."<P>(2) Willingly, spontaneously: nedhabhah, "willing offering" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',54,6);">Ps 54:6</a>, "I will freely sacrifice unto thee," the Revised Version (British and American) "with a freewill-offering"; <a onClick="return mV(\'Hsa\',14,4);">Ho 14:4</a>, "I will love them freely"); nadhabh, "to give willingly<6C>(<a onClick="return mV(\'Ezr\',2,68);">Ezr 2:68</a>, the Revised Version (British and American) "willingly offered"; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Ezr\',1,6);">1:6</a>); nedabh Aramaic (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ezr\',7,15);">7:15</a>; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Ezr\',7,13,16);">7:13,16</a>).<P>(3) Without hindrance or restraint, \'akhal, "to eat" is rendered in <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',2,16);">Ge 2:16</a>, "Thou mayest freely eat," the King James Version margin" Hebrew, eating thou shalt eat"; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',14,30);">1Sa 14:30</a>, "if...the people had eaten freely"; parrhesiazomai, "to speak freely, openly, boldly" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',26,26);">Ac 26:26</a>, "Unto whom also I speak freely"); meta parrhesias, "with full speech" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',2,29);">Ac 2:29</a>, "I may say unto you freely").<P>Revised Version has "have drunk freely" for "well drunk" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',2,10);">Joh 2:10</a>). The word is methusko, Pass. "to become drunk." Comparison with <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',12,45);">Lu 12:45</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eph\',5,18);">Eph 5:18</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Th\',5,7);">1Th 5:7</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',17,2);">Re 17:2</a>, where the same word is translated the King James Version "made drunk," the Revised Version (British and American) "made drunken" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',24,49);">Mt 24:49</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',2,15);">Ac 2:15</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',11,21);">1Co 11:21</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',17,6);">Re 17:6</a>, "drunken"), will show that the meaning is "drunk," which was the rendering of Tyndale and Cranmer; Vulgate (Jerome\'s Latin Bible, 390-405 A.D.) has cum inebriati fuerint; Plummer renders "have become drunk, are drunk."``185';
isbe[3575]='Freewill Offering`fre\'-wil of\'-er-ing.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=SACRIFICE">SACRIFICE</a>`1';
isbe[3576]='Freewoman`fre\'-woom-an (eleuthera): Found but 4 times in the King James Version (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gal\',4,22,23,30,31);">Ga 4:22-23, 30-31</a>). In the first three passages it refers to Sarah, the freewoman and true wife of Abraham as in contrast with Hagar, the Egyptian slave girl who became his concubine (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',16,1);">Ge 16:1</a>). In the last passage a metaphorical application of the term is made to the Christians who are the children of promise, of freedom, of the spirit, the children of the freewoman, in contrast with the Jews who are the children of the letter, of bondage, of the bondwoman.``1';
isbe[3577]='Frequent`fre\'-kwent (peris-soteros):<P>"Frequent," adjective (from Latin frequens, frequentis, "crowded") occurs only once in the text of the King James Version, as the translation of perissoteros, adverb in comparative degree of perissos, "abundantly," hence, "more abundantly" (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',1,12);">2Co 1:12</a>); in <a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',11,23);">2Co 11:23</a>, "in prisons more frequent," the Revised Version (British and American) "more abundantly"; and once in the margin of the King James Version (<a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',27,6);">Pr 27:6</a>) as translation of \'athar, "to be abundant," the Revised Version (British and American) in text, "profuse."<P>American Revised Version has "frequent" for "open" (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',3,1);">1Sa 3:1</a>, "The word of Yahweh was precious (margin, rare) in those days; there was no frequent vision," margin "(Hebrew) widely spread" (the word is parac, "to break forth," "to scatter," etc.). the English Revised Version retains "open," with "frequent, Hebrew widely spread" in the margin. "Frequent" (the verb) does not occur.``185';
isbe[3578]='Fresh`Adj.:<P>The translation of hadhash, "new," "fresh" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',29,20);">Job 29:20</a>, "My glory is fresh in me"); of leshadh, "sap," "moisture" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',11,8);">Nu 11:8</a>, of the manna, "as the taste of fresh oil," the Revised Version, margin "cakes baked with oil"); of ra\'anan, "to be fresh and green" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',92,10);">Ps 92:10</a>, "fresh oil"); of glukus, "sweet" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jam\',3,12);">Jas 3:12</a>, "salt water and fresh," the Revised Version (British and American) "sweet"). Fresher is the translation of rutaphash, "to become fresh" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',33,25);">Job 33:25</a>; "His flesh shall be fresher than a child\'s").<P>Revised Version has "fresh" for "green" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',30,37);">Ge 30:37</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',23,14);">Le 23:14</a>), for "moist" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',6,3);">Nu 6:3</a>), for "full" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',2,14);">Le 2:14</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',4,42);">2Ki 4:42</a>), for "new" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',15,15);">Jud 15:15</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',9,17);">Mt 9:17</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',2,22);">Mr 2:22</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',5,38);">Lu 5:38</a>).``185';
isbe[3579]='Fret, Fretting`(charah, ma\'ar):<P>To "fret" is from for (prefix) and etan, "to eat," "to consume." The word is both transitive and intransitive in King James Version:<P>(1) transitive as translation of charah, "to burn," Hithpael, "to fret one\'s self," "to be angry" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',37,1);">Ps 37:1</a>, "Fret not thyself because of evil-doers"; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',37,7,8);">Ps 37:7-8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',24,19);">Pr 24:19</a>); of qatsaph, "to be angry," etc. (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',8,21);">Isa 8:21</a>, "They shall fret themselves, and curse," etc.); of raghaz, to be moved" (with anger, etc.) (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',16,43);">Eze 16:43</a>, "Thou hast fretted me in all these things," the American Standard Revised Version "raged against me"). For <a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',13,55);">Le 13:55</a>, see under Fretting below.<P>(2) Intransitive, it is the translation of ra\'am, "to rage," Hiphil, "to provoke to anger" (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',1,6);">1Sa 1:6</a>, "Her rival provoked her sore, to make her fret"); of za\'aph, "to be sad," "to fret" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',19,3);">Pr 19:3</a>, "His heart fretteth against Yahweh").<P>Fretting in the sense of eating away, consuming, is used of the leprosy, ma\'ar, "to be sharp, bitter, painful" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',13,51,52);">Le 13:51-52</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',14,44);">14:44</a>, "a fretting leprosy"; in <a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',13,55);">Le 13:55</a> we have "it (is) fret inward" ("fret" past participle), as the translation of pehetheth from pahath, "to dig" (a pit), the word meaning "a depression," "a hollow or sunken spot in a garment affected by a kind of leprosy," the Revised Version (British and American) "it is a fret."<P>Revised Version has "fretful" for "angry" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',21,19);">Pr 21:19</a>), margin "vexation."``185';
isbe[3580]='Fried`frid.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=BREAD">BREAD</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=FOOD">FOOD</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=LOCUST">LOCUST</a>`1';
isbe[3581]='Friend; Friendship`frend, frend\'-ship: In the Old Testament two words, variously translated "friend" or "companion": re\'eh, indicating a mere associate, passing friend, neighbor, or companion; \'ahabh, indicating affection natural or unnatural. In the New Testament also two words: hetairos, "a comrade," or "fellow," and philos, suggesting a more affectionate relation.<P>Literature abounds in concrete examples of friendship of either kind noted above, and of profoundly philosophic as well as sentimental and poetic expositions of the idea of friendship. Notable among these are the Old Testament examples. Abraham, because of the intimacy of his relations, was called "the friend of God" (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',20,7);">2Ch 20:7</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',41,8);">Isa 41:8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jam\',2,23);">Jas 2:23</a>). "Yahweh spake unto Moses face to face, as a man...unto his friend" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',33,11);">Ex 33:11</a>). The romantic aspect of the friendship of Ruth and Naomi is interesting (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rth\',1,\'16-18\');">Ru 1:16-18</a>). The devotion of Hushai, who is repeatedly referred to as David\'s friend (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',15,37);">2Sa 15:37</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',16,16);">16:16</a>), is a notable illustration of the affection of a subordinate for his superior. The mutual friendship of David and Jonathan (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',18,1);">1Sa 18:1</a>), from which the author is made to say, "The soul of Jonathan was knit with the soul of David, and Jonathan loved him as his own soul," is another example. Again in his pathetic lament for Jonathan (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',1,26);">2Sa 1:26</a>), David says in highly emotional tones that his love "was wonderful, passing the love of women." Elijah and Elisha form a unique illustration of semiprofessional affection (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',2,\'1-\');">2Ki 2</a>).<P>In the New Testament, Jesus and His disciples illustrate the growth of friendship from that of teacher and disciple, lord and servant, to that of friend and friend (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',15,\'13-15\');">Joh 15:13-15</a>). Paul and Timothy are likewise conspicuous (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ti\',1,2);">2Ti 1:2</a>).<P>In general literature we have the classic incident, recorded by Plutarch, of Damon and Pythias during the rule of Dionysius. Pythias, condemned to death, was about to be executed but desired to see his family. Damon offered himself as a ransom in case he should not return in time for the hour of execution. Returning in time, both were released by the great Dionysius, who asked to be taken into the secret of such friendship. The writings on friendship are many. Plato and Cicero have immortalized themselves by their comments. Cicero held dearly the friendship of Scipio, declaring that of all that Nature or Fortune ever gave him there was nothing which could compare with the friendship of Scipio. Bacon, Emerson, Black, Gladden, King, Hillis, and many others in later days have written extensively concerning friendship. The best illustration of the double use of the word (see above) is that in <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',18,24);">Pr 18:24</a>, "He that maketh many friends doeth it to his own destruction; but there is a friend that sticketh closer than a brother." Again, "Iron sharpeneth iron; so a man sharpeneth the countenance of his friend" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',27,17);">27:17</a>). The honesty and frankness of genuine friends are set forth in the maxim, "Faithful are the wounds of a friend" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',27,6);">27:6</a>).``25';
isbe[3582]='Friends; Chief Friends`(hoi philoi proton): Expressions used in 1 and 2Macc to designate the favored courtiers of the Antiochi. Mattathias is promised enrollment among the king\'s Friends, to tempt him to apostatize (1Macc 2:18); Alexander Balas writes Jonathan among his Chief Friends (1Macc 10:65). Compare also 1Macc 3:38; 6:10,14; 10:60; 11:26,27; 2Macc 8:9.``1';
isbe[3583]='Fringes`frin\'-jis (tsitsith, "tassel, lock" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',15,38,39);">Nu 15:38-39</a>), gedhilim, "twisted threads," "festoons" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',22,12);">De 22:12</a>)): Tassels worn by the Israelites on the four corners of their garments as reminders of "all the commandments of Yahweh," in accordance with the law set out in <a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',15,\'37-41\');">Nu 15:37-41</a> and <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',22,12);">De 22:12</a>. These tassels originally contained a thread of tekheleth, "violet." Jewish tradition, however, has failed to retain the tekheleth, because of doubt as to the exact meaning of the term, and instead dark blue lines were dyed on the borders of the Tallith or garment in which the fringes were placed. According to tradition any garment having four corners required the mnemonic fringes, the importance of which was weighed against "all the commandments of the Lord." In New Testament times such garments were still worn (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',9,20);">Mt 9:20</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',14,36);">14:36</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',23,5);">23:5</a>). The later Jews, after adopting the garments of the Diaspora, in order to observe the tsitsith commandment began to use two extra four-cornered fringed garments: the large Tallith while at prayer, and the small Tallith, or \'arba\' kanephoth, as an undergarment during the day. Their tradition prescribes the exact manner in which each tassel shall be made, and gives a symbolic meaning to the numbers of windings and knots, somewhat after the manner of the string-writing of several early civilizations (compare the Peruvian quipus). Thus in the tsitsith a long cord is wrapped around seven shorter cords first seven times, then eight, then eleven, and finally thirteen, each series being separated from the others by two knots. The numbers seven and eight constituting fifteen together suggest YH, and the number eleven, WH. Together they make up the holy name YaHWeH. The number thirteen stands for echadh, the letters of which taken as numerals equal thirteen. The sentence Yahweh \'echadh means "Yahweh is one." Many other suggestions, more or less fanciful, have been worked out, all tending to associate the fringes with the Law in the mind of the wearer.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=DRESS">DRESS</a>`80';
isbe[3584]='Frock`frok (simlah; homolinon): The hempen frock, mentioned in Ecclesiasticus 40:4 as a mark of the lowly, was a simple garment consisting of a square piece of cloth wrapped around the body. It is the same as the garment (simlah) which we find the poor man using as his only bed covering by night (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',22,26);">Ex 22:26</a>f); the traveler, as the receptacle for his belongings (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',12,34);">Ex 12:34</a>); and the common people of both sexes as their general outer garments, though there was some difference in appearance between the simlah of the man and that of the woman (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',22,5);">De 22:5</a>).`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=DRESS">DRESS</a>`80';
isbe[3585]='Frog`(tsephardea\'; compare Arabic dafda\' (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',8,2);">Ex 8:2</a>ff; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',78,45);">Ps 78:45</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',105,30);">105:30</a>); batrachos (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',16,13);">Re 16:13</a>)): The references in Psalms, as well as in Exodus, are to the plague of flogs. In <a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',16,13);">Re 16:13</a> we have, "And I saw coming out of the mouth of the dragon, and out of the mouth of the beast, and out of the mouth of the false prophet, three unclean spirits, as it were frogs." The word tsephardea\' probably referred both to frogs and to toads, as does the Arabic dafda\'. In Palestine and Syria Rana esculenta, Bufo viridis and Hyla arborea are common. According to Mr. Michael J. Nicoll, assistant director of the Zoological Gardens at Gizah, near Cairo, the commonest Egyptian species are Rana mascariensis and Bufo regularis. Rana esculenta, Bufo viridis and Bufo vittatus are also found, but are much less common.``37';
isbe[3586]='Frontier`fron\'-ter, frun\'ter (katseh): The word occurs once in plural in <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',25,9);">Eze 25:9</a>. the Revised Version, margin has "in every quarter."``1';
isbe[3587]='Frontlets`frunt\'-lets (totaphoth, from tuph, "to bind"): Ornaments worn on the forehead, particularly <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=Phylactery">phylacteries</a> (which see), which were worn in this manner and also on the arms (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',13,16);">Ex 13:16</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',6,8);">De 6:8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',11,18);">11:18</a>; compare also <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',13,9);">Ex 13:9</a>).``1';
isbe[3588]='Frost`frost (kephor, "hoar-frost," <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',16,14);">Ex 16:14</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',38,29);">Job 38:29</a>; chanamal, perhaps "the aphis," <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',78,47);">Ps 78:47</a>; qerach, "cold," <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',31,40);">Ge 31:40</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',37,10);">Job 37:10</a> the King James Version; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',36,30);">Jer 36:30</a>):<P>1. Formation:<P>A temperature of freezing or lower is called frost. Dew forms when the temperature is decreased; and if below freezing, the dew takes the form of a white film or covering over rocks and leaves. This white covering is called hoar-frost. Like dew it is the result of condensation of the moisture of the air on objects which radiate their heat quickly. In order that condensation may take place the atmosphere must be saturated. Frost may be expected on clear, still nights when the radiation is sufficient to reduce the temperature below the freezing-point.<P>In Syria and Palestine frost is a very rare occurrence at sea-level; but on the hills and elevated plains it is usual in winter, beginning with November, and on the highest elevations throughout the year. Late spring frosts in March or early April do great damage to fruit.<P>2. In Syria and Palestine:<P>In clear weather there is often a great variation in the temperature of the day and the night, especially on the inland plains, so that literally, as Jacob said to Laban, "In the day the drought consumed me, and the frost by night" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',31,40);">Ge 31:40</a>); "In the day to the heat, and in the night to the frost" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',36,30);">Jer 36:30</a>; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',22,19);">Jer 22:19</a>), a passage which suggests that Jehoiakim\'s corpse was left unburied.<P>3. In Egypt:<P>The meaning of chanamal, translated "frost" in <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',78,47);">Ps 78:47</a> (see above), "He destroyed...their sycomore-trees with frost" (m "great hail stones"), is uncertain. "Frost is unknown in Egypt, and Gesenius suggests \'ants,\' comparing it with Arabic namal" (Temple, BD, S.V.).<P>4. Figurative Uses:<P>The manna in the wilderness is compared to hoarfrost. "A small round thing, small as the hoarfrost" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',16,14);">Ex 16:14</a>). Manna is occasionally found in Syria now as a flaky, gelatinous substance formed on bushes and rocks. The elements of Nature are indications of God\'s power, and are referred to as signs of His might: "By the breath of God frost is given" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',37,10);">Job 37:10</a> the King James Version). "The hoary frost of heaven, who hath gendered it?" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',38,29);">Job 38:29</a>); "He destroyed their vines with hail, and their sycamore-trees with frost" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',78,47);">Ps 78:47</a>); "He scattereth the hoar-frost like ashes" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',147,16);">Ps 147:16</a>).``85';
isbe[3589]='Frowardness`fro\'-werd-nes: The translation of tahpukhoth the plural of tahpukhah, "perversity," "foolishness" (from haphakh, "to turn about") in <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',2,14);">Pr 2:14</a>, "delight in the frowardness of the wicked," the American Standard Revised Version "the perverseness of evil," margin "the evil man" (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',2,12);">2:12</a>; some render "deceit"); <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',6,14);">6:14</a> the American Standard Revised Version, "perverseness"; <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',10,32);">10:32</a>, "the mouth of the wicked speaketh frowardness," the American Standard Revised Version "speaketh perverseness," margin "is."``1';
isbe[3590]='Fruit`froot.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=FOOD">FOOD</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=BOTANY">BOTANY</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=APPLE;+APPLE-TREE">APPLE</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=FIG,+FIG-TREE">FIG</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=VINE">VINE</a>`1';
isbe[3591]='Frustrate`frus\'-trat (parar; atheteo): "Frustrate" (from frustra, "vain") is the translation of parar, "to break," "to make void," "to bring to nothing" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ezr\',4,5);">Ezr 4:5</a>), "to frustrate their purpose" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',44,25);">Isa 44:25</a>, "that frustrateth the signs of the liars"); of atheteo, "to displace," "to reject or make void or null": <a onClick="return mV(\'Gal\',2,21);">Ga 2:21</a>, "I do not frustrate the grace of God" (by setting up the righteousness which is "through the law"), the Revised Version (British and American) "make void"; compare 1Macc 11:36, "Nothing hereof shall be revoked," the Revised Version (British and American) "annulled" (atheteo).<P>Revised Version has "frustrateth" for "disappointeth" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',5,12);">Job 5:12</a>, parar).<P>The adjective appears (2Esdras 10:34), "frustrate of my hope" (Judith 11:11, "frustrate of his purpose" (apraktos)).``185';
isbe[3592]='Frying-Pan`fri\'-ing-pan.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=BREAD">BREAD</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=PAN">PAN</a>`1';
isbe[3593]='Fuel`fu\'-el (\'okhlah, or ma\'akholeth, "food"): Is mentioned specifically only in the Old Testament, in <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',9,5,19);">Isa 9:5, 19</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',15,4,6);">Eze 15:4, 6</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',21,32);">21:32</a>. Its general, literal meaning in these connections is "food for fire," and might include any sort of combustible material. The common forms of fuel were wood of various sorts (even including thorns, <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',58,9);">Ps 58:9</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',118,12);">118:12</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',7,6);">Ec 7:6</a>), and dried stalks of flowers or grass (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',6,30);">Mt 6:30</a>), charred wood as charcoal (<a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',16,12);">Le 16:12</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',44,19);">Isa 44:19</a>, and frequently), and dried dung (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',4,12,15);">Eze 4:12, 15</a>). There is no certain indication that our coal was known to the Hebrews as fuel, and their houses, being without chimneys, were not constructed for the extensive use of fuel for warmth.``41';
isbe[3594]='Fugitive`fu\'-ji-tiv (palit, from palat, "to escape"; na\', from nua\', "to waver"; nophel, from naphal, "to fall"; bariach, beriach and mibhrach, from barach, "to flee"):<P>One who flees from danger (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',15,5);">Isa 15:5</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',17,21);">Eze 17:21</a>); escapes from bondage (2Macc 8:35 (as adjective)); deserts from duty (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',12,4);">Jud 12:4</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',25,11);">2Ki 25:11</a> the King James Version; compare Judith 16:12 the King James Version), or wanders aimlessly (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',4,12,14);">Ge 4:12, 14</a>).``1';
isbe[3595]='Fulfil`fool-fil\' (male; pleroo, teleo, with other words): "Fulfill" is used<P>(1) in a sense more or less obsolete, "to fill up," complete (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',29,21,28);">Ge 29:21, 28</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',23,26);">Ex 23:26</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',36,17);">Job 36:17</a>, the Revised Version (British and American) "full," margin "filled up"; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',3,15);">Mt 3:15</a>, "to fulfill all righteousness"; <a onClick="return mV(\'Phl\',2,2);">Php 2:2</a>, "Fulfil ye my joy," the American Standard Revised Version "make full"; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',10,6);">2Co 10:6</a>);<P>(2) in the sense of "to accomplish," "to carry into effect," as to fulfill the word of Yahweh (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',2,27);">1Ki 2:27</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',8,15,24);">8:15, 24</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',36,21);">2Ch 36:21</a>, etc.); in the New Testament very frequently used of the fulfillment of prophetic Scripture (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',1,22);">Mt 1:22</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',2,15);">2:15</a>, etc.). Love is declared to be "the fulfillment (pleroma, "fullness") of the law" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',13,10);">Ro 13:10</a>). For "fulfill" the Revised Version (British and American) has "do" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',17,17);">Re 17:17</a>); for "fulfilled" has "performed" (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',14,22);">2Sa 14:22</a>), "accomplished" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ezr\',1,1);">Ezr 1:1</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',5,18);">Mt 5:18</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',24,34);">24:34</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',21,32);">Lu 21:32</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',19,28);">Joh 19:28</a>), with numerous other changes.``185';
isbe[3596]='Fuller`fool\'-er (kabhac; literally, "to trample," gnapheus): The fuller was usually the dyer, since, before the woven cloth could be properly dyed, it must be freed from the oily and gummy substances naturally found on the raw fiber. Many different substances were in ancient times used for cleansing. Among them were white clay, putrid urine, and the ashes of certain desert plants (Arabic qali, Biblical "soap"; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mal\',3,2);">Mal 3:2</a>). The fuller\'s shop was usually outside the city (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',18,17);">2Ki 18:17</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',7,3);">Isa 7:3</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',36,2);">36:2</a>), first, that he might have sufficient room to spread out his cloth for drying and sunning, and second, because of the offensive odors sometimes produced by his processes. The Syrian indigo dyer still uses a cleaning process closely allied to that pictured on the Egyptian monuments. The unbleached cotton is soaked in water and then sprinkled with the powdered ashes of the ishnan, locally called qali, and then beaten in heaps on a flat stone either with another stone or with a large wooden paddle. The cloth is washed free from the alkali by small boys treading on it in a running stream or in many changes of clean water (compare En-rogel, literally, "foot fountain," but translated also "fuller\'s fountain" because of the fullers\' method of washing their cloth). Mark describes Jesus\' garments at the time of His transfiguration as being whiter than any fuller on earth could whiten them (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',9,3);">Mr 9:3</a>).``133';
isbe[3597]='Fuller\'s Field, the`fool\'-ers feld, (sedheh khobhec): In all references occurs "the conduit of the upper pool, in the highway of the fuller\'s field"; this must have been a well-known landmark at Jerusalem in the time of the monarchy. Here stood Rabshakeh in his interview with Eliakim and others on the wall (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',18,17);">2Ki 18:17</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',36,2);">Isa 36:2</a>); clearly the highway was within easy earshot of the walls. Here Isaiah met Ahaz and Shear-jashub his son by command of Yahweh (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',7,3);">Isa 7:3</a>). An old view placed these events somewhere near the present Jaffa Gate, as here runs an aqueduct from the Birket Mamilla outside the walls of the Birket Hamam el Batrah, inside the walls; the former was considered the "Upper Pool" and is traditionally called the "Upper Pool" of Gihon. But these pools and this aqueduct are certainly of later date (see <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=JERUSALEM, 1">JERUSALEM</a>). Another view puts this highway to the north side of the city, where there are extensive remains of a "conduit" running in from the north. In favor of this is the fact that the north was the usual side for attack and the probable position for Rabshakeh to gather his army; it also suits the conditions of <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',7,3);">Isa 7:3</a>. Further, Josephus (BJ, V, iv, 2) in his description of the walls places a "Monument of the Fuller" at the northeast corner, and the name "fuller" survived in connection with the north wall to the 7th century, as the pilgrim Arculf mentions a gate. West of the Damascus gate called Porta Villae Fullonis. The most probable view, however, is that this conduit was one connected with Gihon, the present "Virgin\'s Fountain" (see <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=GIHON+(2)">GIHON</a>). This was well known as "the upper spring" (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',32,30);">2Ch 32:30</a>), and the pool, which, we know, was at the source, would probably be called the "Upper Pool." In this neighborhood<6F>or lower down the valley near En-rogel, which is supposed by some to mean "the spring of the fuller"<22>is the natural place to expect "fulling." Somewhere along the Kidron valley between the Virgin\'s Fountain and the junction with the Tyropeon was the probable scene of the interview with Rabshakeh; the conversation may quite probably have occurred across the valley, the Assyrian general standing on some part of the cliffs now covered by the village of Siloam.``117';
isbe[3598]='Fuller\'s Fountain``<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=EN+ROGEL">EN-ROGEL</a>`1';
isbe[3599]='Fullness`fool\'-nes: The translation of pleroma, which is generally, but not invariably, rendered "fullness" in the New Testament. Etymologically, pleroma<6D>which itself is derived from the verb pleroo, "I fill"<22>signifies "that which is or has been filled"; it also means "that which fills or with which a thing is filled"; then it signifies "fullness," "a fulfilling."<P>1. "Fullness" in the Gospels:<P>In the Gospels it occurs as follows: <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',9,16);">Mt 9:16</a> and <a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',2,21);">Mr 2:21</a>: in both of these passages it means "the fullness," that by which a gap or rent is filled up, when an old garment is repaired by a patch; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',6,43);">Mr 6:43</a>, \'They took up fragments, the fullness of twelve baskets\'; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',8,20);">8:20</A>, \'The fullness of how many baskets of fragments did ye take up?\' <a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',1,16);">Joh 1:16</a>, \'out of his fullness we all received.\'<P>2. Its Use in the Pauline Epistles:<P>Elsewhere in the New Testament "fullness" is used by Paul alone, who employs it 12t, in addition to the frequent use he makes of the verb "to fill." Of these 12, no fewer than 6 are in Ephesians and Colossians. The references are these: <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',11,12);">Ro 11:12</a>, "If...their loss (is) the riches of the Gentiles; how much more their fullness?" The "fullness" of Israel here refers to their being, as a nation, received by God to a participation in all the benefits of Christ\'s salvation. <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',11,25);">Ro 11:25</a>, "A hardening...hath befallen Israel, until the fullness of the Gentiles be come in." <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',13,10);">Ro 13:10</a>, "Love...is the fulfillment (the fulfilling) of the law"; that is, love is not a partial fulfillment, by obedience to this or that commandment, but a complete filling up of what the law enjoins. <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',15,29);">Ro 15:29</a>, "I shall come in the fullness of the blessing of Christ." <a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',10,26);">1Co 10:26</a>, "The earth is the Lord\'s, and the fullness thereof." <a onClick="return mV(\'Gal\',4,4);">Ga 4:4</a>, "when the fullness of the time came." The fullness of the time is that portion of time by which the longer antecedent period is completed. <a onClick="return mV(\'Eph\',1,10);">Eph 1:10</a>, "unto a dispensation of the fullness of the times." <a onClick="return mV(\'Eph\',1,23);">Eph 1:23</a>, "the church, which is his body, the fullness of him that filleth all in all." The church is the fullness of Christ; the body of believers is filled with the presence, power, agency and riches of Christ. <a onClick="return mV(\'Eph\',3,19);">Eph 3:19</a>, "that ye may be filled unto all the fullness of God"<22>that ye may be wholly filled with God and with His presence and power and grace. <a onClick="return mV(\'Eph\',4,13);">Eph 4:13</a>, "unto the measure of the stature of the fullness of Christ." <a onClick="return mV(\'Col\',1,19);">Col 1:19</a>, "In him should all the fullness dwell." <a onClick="return mV(\'Col\',2,9);">Col 2:9</a>, "In him dwelleth all the fullness of the Godhead bodily" (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',2,40,52);">Lu 2:40, 52</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',4,1);">4:1</a>).<P>3. "Fullness" in Ephesians and Colossians:<P>"Fullness" in Ephesians and Colossians is used to present some of the most prominent thoughts in these epistles, sometimes referring to Christ, sometimes to the church and the individual Christian. Christ is Himself to "fulfill" all things in heaven and on earth (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eph\',4,10);">Eph 4:10</a> King James Version margin). We cannot separate "the fullness of Christ" in this passage (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eph\',4,13);">Eph 4:13</a>) from the statement in <a onClick="return mV(\'Eph\',1,23);">Eph 1:23</a>, that the Christ is being fulfilled, and finds His fullness in the church. When all the saints have come to the unity which is their destined goal, or in other words, to the full-grown man, the Christ will have been fulfilled. Thus they will have together reached "the full measure of the maturity of the fullness of the Christ" (J. Armitage Robinson, Commentary on Ephesians, 183). The church and individual believers, have, by faith, the full possession of all that Christ has to impart<72>the grace and comfort and strength of Christ received by them now. Compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',1,16);">Joh 1:16</a>; \'In him ye are complete, are made full\' (<a onClick="return mV(\'Col\',2,10);">Col 2:10</a>); that is, the fullness of moral, intellectual and spiritual perfection is communicated by Christ to all who are united to Him. "When as the result of the Holy Spirit\'s inward strengthening, Christ dwells in the heart, and His knowledge-surpassing love is known, the only limit to spiritual excellence is \'to be filled unto all the fullness of God\'!"(HDB, 735).<P>4. Its Use by the False Teachers at Colosse:<P>In the passages from Colossians, "the fullness" in Christ is contrasted with the mediating eons or angel-powers or spiritual manifestations supposed to be intermediate between God and the world. The false teachers at Colosse seem to have used "fullness," as a technical or semi-technical term, for the purpose of their philosophical or theosophical teaching, employing it to signify the entire series of angels or eons, which filled the space or interval between a holy God and a world of matter, which was conceived of as essentially and necessarily evil. Teaching of this sort was entirely derogatory to the person and work of Christ. In opposition, therefore, to the Colossian false teaching in regard to "the fullness," Paul shows what the facts really are, that in Christ dwells all the fullness of the Godhead bodily.<P>5. The Fullness in Christ:<P>The fullness of the Godhead is the totality of the Divine powers and attributes, all the wealth of the being and of the nature of God<6F>eternal, infinite, unchangeable in existence, in knowledge, in wisdom, in power, in holiness, in goodness, in truth, in love. This is the fullness of the nature of God<6F>life, light, love; and this has its permanent, its settled abode in Christ. All that is His own by right is His by His Father\'s good pleasure also. It was the Father\'s good pleasure that in Christ should all the fullness dwell.<P>Any limitation, therefore, of the meaning of "fullness," which would make the indwelling of the fullness of the Godhead in Christ a matter either of the future, or of the past only, is inconsistent with what is said of "the fullness" in Him, in <a onClick="return mV(\'Col\',1,19);">Col 1:19</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Col\',2,9);">2:9</a>. The reference in both passages is to the timeless and eternal communication of the fullness of the Godhead from the Father to the Son.<P>It was in a sense developed along the lines of the Colossian teaching regarding "the fullness," that the Gnostics afterward used the term.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=GNOSTICISM">GNOSTICISM</a>`155';
isbe[3600]='Funeral`fu\'-ner-al.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=BURIAL">BURIAL</a>`1';
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