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isbe[2901]='Eglah`eg\'-la (\'eghlah, "heifer"):<P>Wife of David and mother of Ithream (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',3,5);">2Sa 3:5</a> parallel <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',3,3);">1Ch 3:3</a>).``1';
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isbe[2902]='Eglaim`eg\'-la-im (\'eghlayim; Agaleim):<P>A place named in <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',15,8);">Isa 15:8</a>, possibly in the south of Moab. Eusebius (Onomasticon) identifies it with Agallim, a village 8 Roman miles south of Areopolis. It cannot now be identified.``1';
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isbe[2903]='Eglath-Shelishiyah`eg\'-lath-shel-i-shi\'-ya (\'eghlath shelishiyah):<P>Found in <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',15,5);">Isa 15:5</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',48,34);">Jer 48:34</a> (Hebrew) in oracles against Moab. the King James Version translates "an heifer of three years old"; the Revised Version (British and American) takes it as the name of a place, but the American Revised Version, margin has "a heifer three years old," according to Septuagint. In the former case strong and unconquered cities, Zoar and Horonaim, are compared to the heifer not yet broken to the yoke. Such use of "heifer" is not infrequent (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',46,20);">Jer 46:20</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Hsa\',10,11);">Ho 10:11</a>, etc.). The majority of scholars, however, take it as a place-name. Some would read "the third Eglath," as if there were three towns of that name. No probable identification has been suggested.``54';
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isbe[2904]='Eglon (1)`eg\'-lon (\'eghlon, "circle"):<P>A king of Moab in the period of the Judges who, in alliance with Ammon and Amalek, overcame Israel and made Jericho his capital, presumably driven across the Jordan by the turmoil in his own kingdom which at that time was probably being used as a battle ground by Edom and the desert tribes (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',36,35);">Ge 36:35</a>). After 18 years of servitude the children of Israel were delivered by Ehud the Benjamite, who like so many other Benjamites (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',20,16);">Jud 20:16</a>) was left-handed. Under the pretext of carrying a present to the tyrant, he secured a private interview and assassinated him with a two-edged sword which he had carried concealed on his right side (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',3,\'19-22\');">Jud 3:19-22</a>). Ehud made his escape, rallied the children of Israel about him and returned to conquer the Moabites (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',3,30);">Jud 3:30</a>).``80';
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isbe[2905]='Eglon (2)`eg\'-lon (\'eghlon; Odollam):<P>A royal Canaanite city whose king joined the league headed by Adonizedek of Jerusalem against the Gibeonites, which suffered overwhelming defeat at the hands of Joshua (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',10,\'1-\');">Jos 10</a>). Joshua passed from Libnah to Lachish, and from Lachish to Eglon on his way to Hebron (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',10,31);">10:31</a>ff). It was in the Shephelah of Judah (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',15,39);">15:39</a>). The name seems to be preserved in that of Khirbet \'Ajlan, about 10 miles west of Beit Jibrin. Professor Petrie, however, thinks that the site of Tell Nejileh better suits the requirements. While Khirbet \'Ajlan is a comparatively modern site, the city at Tell Nejileh must have been contemporary with that at Tell el-Chesy (Lachish). It lies fully three miles southeast of Tell el-Chesy.``54';
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isbe[2906]='Egypt`e\'-jipt:<P><b>I. THE COUNTRY</b><P class="in15">1. The Basis of the Land<P class="in15">2. The Nile Valley<P class="in15">3. Earliest Human Remains<P class="in15">4. Climate<P class="in15">5. Conditions of Life<P class="in15">6. The Nile<P class="in15">7. The Fauna<P class="in15">8. The Flora<P class="in15">9. The Prehistoric Races<P><b>II. THE HISTORY</b><P class="in15">1. 1st and 2nd Ages: Prehistoric<P class="in15">2. 3d Age: Ist and IInd Dynasties<P class="in15">3. 4th Age: IIIrd through VIth Dynasties<P class="in15">4. 5th Age: VIIth through XIVth Dynasties<P class="in15">5. 6th Age: XVth through XXIVth Dynasties<P class="in15">6. 7th Age: XXVth Dynasty to Roman Times<P class="in15">7. 8th Age: Arabic<P class="in15">8. Early Foreign Connections<P><b>III. THE OLD TESTAMENT CONNECTIONS</b><P class="in15">1. Semitic Connections<P class="in15">2. Abramic Times<P class="in15">3. Circumcision<P class="in15">4. Joseph<P class="in15">5. Descent into Egypt<P class="in15">6. The Oppression<P class="in15">7. The Historic Position<P class="in15">8. The Plagues<P class="in15">9. Date of the Exodus<P class="in15">10. Route of the Exodus<P class="in15">11.Numbers of the Exodus<P class="in15">12. Israel in Canaan<P class="in15">13. Hadad<P class="in15">14. Pharaoh\'s Daughter<P class="in15">15. Shishak<P class="in15">16. Zerakh<P class="in15">17. The Ethiopians<P class="in15">18. Tahpanhes<P class="in15">19. Hophra<P class="in15">20. The Jews of Syene<P class="in15">21. The New Jerusalem of Oniah<P class="in15">22. The Egyptian Jew<P class="in15">23. Cities and Places Alphabetically<P><b>IV. THE CIVILIZATION</b><P class="in15">1. Language<P class="in15">2. Writing<P class="in15">3. Literature<P class="in15">4. Four Views of Future Life<P class="in15">5. Four Groups of Gods<P class="in15">6. Foreign Gods<P class="in15">7. Laws<P class="in15">8. Character<P><b>V. LITERATURE</b><hr /><P>Egypt (mitsrayim; he Aiguptos):<P>Usually supposed to represent the dual of Mitsrayim, referring to "the two lands," as the Egyptians called their country. This dualism, however, has been denied by some.<P>I. The Country.<P>1. The Basis of the Land:<P>Though Egypt is one of the earliest countries in recorded history, and as regards its continuous civilization, yet it is a late country in its geological history and in its occupation by a settled population. The whole land up to Silsileh is a thick mass of Eocene limestone, with later marls over that in the lower districts. It has been elevated on the east, up to the mountains of igneous rocks many thousand feet high toward the Red Sea. It has been depressed on the west, down to the Fayum and the oases below sea-level. This strain resulted in a deep fault from north to south for some hundreds of miles up from the Mediterranean. This fault left its eastern side about 200 ft. above its western, and into it the drainage of the plateau poured, widening it out so as to form the Nile valley, as the permanent drain of Northeast Africa. The access of water to the rift seems to have caused the basalt outflows, which are seen as black columnar basalt south of the Fayum, and brown massive basalt at Khankah, north of Cairo.<P>2. The Nile Valley:<P>The gouging out of the Nile valley by rainfall must have continued when the land was 300 ft. higher than at present, as is shown by the immense fails of strata into collapsed caverns which were far below the present Nile level. Then, after the excavations of the valley, it has been submerged to 500 ft. lower than at present, as is shown by the rolled gravel beds and deposits on the tops of the water-worn cliffs, and the filling up of the tributary valleys<79>as at Thebes<65>by deep deposits, through which the subsequent stream beds have been scoured out. The land still had the Nile source 30 ft. higher than it is now within the human period, as seen by the worked flints in high gravel beds above the Nile plain. The distribution of land and water was very different from that at present when the land was only 100 ft. lower than now. Such a change would make the valley an estuary up to south of the Fayum, would submerge much of the western desert, and would unite the Gulf of Suez and the Mediterranean. Such differences would entirely alter the conditions of animal life by sea and land. And as the human period began when the water was considerably higher, the conditions of climate and of life must have greatly changed in the earlier ages of man\'s occupation.<P>3. Earliest Human Remains:<P>The earliest human remains belonging to the present condition of the country are large paleolithic flints found in the side valleys at the present level of the Nile. As these are perfectly fresh, and not rolled or altered, they show that paleolithic man lived in Egypt under the present conditions. The close of this paleolithic age of hunters, and the beginning of a settled population of cultivators, cannot have been before the drying up of the climate, which by depriving the Nile of tributary streams enfeebled it so that its mud was deposited and formed a basis for agriculture. From the known rate of deposit, and depth of mud soil, this change took place about 10,000 years ago. As the recorded history of the country extends 7,500 years, and we know of two prehistoric ages before that, it is pretty well fixed that the disappearance of paleolithic man, and the beginning of the continuous civilization must have been about 9,000 to 10,000 years ago. For the continuation of this subject see the section on "History" below.<P>4. Climate:<P>The climate of Egypt is unique in the world. So far as solar heat determines it, the condition is tropical; for, though just north of the tropic which lies at the boundary of Egypt and Nubia, the cloudless condition fully compensates for higher latitude. So far as temperature of the air is concerned, the climate is temperate, the mean heat of the winter months being 52 degree and of the summer about 80 degree, much the same as Italy. This is due to the steady prevalence of north winds, which maintain fit conditions for active, strenuous work. The rainlessness and dry air give the same facility of living that is found in deserts, where shelter is only needed for temperature and not for wet; while the inundation provides abundant moisture for the richest crops.<P>5. Conditions of Life:<P>The primitive condition<6F>only recently changed<65>of the crops being all raised during five cool months from November to April, and the inundation covering the land during all the hot weather, left the population free from labor during the enervating season, and only required their energies when work was possible under favorable conditions. At the same time it gave a great opportunity for monumental work, as any amount of labor could be drawn upon without the smallest reduction in the produce of the country. The great structures which covered the land gave training and organization to the people, without being any drain upon the welfare of the country. The inundation covering the plain also provided the easiest transport for great masses from the quarries at the time when labor was abundant. Thus the climatic conditions were all in favor of a great civilization, and aided its production of monuments. The whole mass of the country being of limestone, and much of it of the finest quality, provided material for construction at every point. In the south, sandstone and granite were also at hand upon the great waterway.<P>6. The Nile:<P>The Nile is the great factor which makes life possible in Northeast Africa, and without it Egypt would only be a desolate corner of the Sahara. The union of two essentially different streams takes place at Kharrum. The White or light Nile comes from the great plains of the Sudan, while the Blue or dark Nile descends from the mountains of Abyssinia. The Sudan Nile from Gondokoro is filtered by the lakes and the sudd vegetation, so that it carries little mud; the Abyssinian Nile, by its rapid course, brings down all the soil which is deposited in Egypt, and which forms the basis for cultivation. The Sudan Nile rises only 6 ft. from April to November; while the Abyssinian Nile rises 26 ft. from April to August. The latter makes the rise of the inundation, while the Sudan Nile maintains the level into the winter. In Egypt itself the unchecked Nile at Aswan rises 25 ft. from the end of May to the beginning of September; while at Cairo, where modified by the irrigation system, it rises 16 ft. from May to the end of September. It was usually drained off the land by the beginning of November, and cultivation was begun. The whole cultivable land of Egypt is but the dried-up bed of the great river, which fills its ancient limits during a third of the year. The time taken by a flush of water to come down the Nile is about 15 days from 400 miles above Khartum to Aswan, and about 6 days from Aswan to Cairo, or 80 to 90 miles a day, which shows a flow of 3 to 3 1/2 miles an hour when in flood.<P>7. The Fauna:<P>The fauna has undergone great changes during the human period. At the close of the prehistoric age there are represented the giraffe, elephant, wild ox, lion, leopard, stag, long-necked gazelle and great dogs, none of which are found in the historic period. During historic times various kinds of antelopes have been exterminated, the hippopotamus was driven out of the Delta during Roman times, and the crocodile was cleared out of Upper Egypt and Nubia in the last century. Cranes and other birds shown on early sculptures are now unknown in the country. The animals still surviving are the wolf, jackal, hyena, dogs, ichneumon, jerboa, rats, mice, lizards (up to 4 ft. long) and snakes, besides a great variety of birds, admirably figured by Whymper, Birds of Egypt. Of tamed animals, the ox, sheep, goat and donkey are ancient; the cat and horse were brought in about 2000 BC, the camel was not commonly known till 200 AD, and the buffalo was brought to Egypt and Italy in the Middle Ages.<P>8. The Flora:<P>The cultivated plants of Egypt were numerous. In ancient times we find the maize (durrah), wheat, barley and lentil; the vine, currant, date palm, dum palm, fig, olive and pomegranate; the onion, garlic, cucumber, melon and radish; the sont acacia, sycamore and tamarisk; the flax, henna and clover; and for ornament, the lotus, convolvulus and many others. The extension of commerce brought in by the Greek period, the bean, pea, sesame, lupin, helbeh, colocasia and sugar-cane; also the peach, walnut, castor-oil and pear. In the Roman and Arabic ages came in the chick pea, oats, rice, cotton, orange and lemon. In recent times have come the cactus, aloe, tomato, Indian corn, lebbek acacia and beetroot. Many European flowering and ornamental plants were also used in Egypt by the Greeks, and brought in later by the Arabs.<P>9. The Prehistoric Races:<P>The original race in Egypt seems to have been of the steatopygous type now only found in South Africa. Figures of this race are known in the caves of France, in Malta, and later in Somaliland. As this race was still known in Egypt at the beginning of the neolithic civilization, and is there represented only by female figures in the graves, it seems that it was being exterminated by the newcomers and only the women were kept as slaves. The neolithic race of Egypt was apparently of the Libyan stock. There seems to have been a single type of the Amorites in Syria, the prehistoric Egyptians and the Libyans; this race had a high, well-filled head, long nose slightly aquiline, and short beard; the profile was upright and not prognathous, the hair was wavy brown. It was a better type than the present south Europeans, of a very capable and intelligent appearance. From the objects found, and the religious legends, it seems that this race was subdued by an eastern, and probably Arabian race, in the prehistoric age.<P>II. The History.<P>The founders of the dynastic history were very different, having a profile with nose and forehead in one straight line, and rather thick, but well-formed lips. Historically the indications point to their coming from about Somali land by water, and crossing into Egypt by the Koptos road from the Red Sea. The IInd Dynasty gave place to some new blood, probably of Sudany origin. In the VIth and VIIth Dynasties foreigners poured in apparently from the North, perhaps from Crete, judging by their foreign products. The XVth and XVIth Dynasties were Hyksos, or Semitic "princes of the desert" from the East. The XVIIth and XVIIIth Dynasties were Berber in origin. The XIXth Dynasty was largely Semitic from Syria. The XXIId Dynasty was headed by an eastern adventurer Sheshenq, or Shusinak, "the man of Susa." The XXVth Dynasty was Ethiopian. The XXVIth Dynasty was Libyan. The Greeks then poured into the Delta and the Fayum, and Hellenized Egypt. The Roman made but little change in the population; but during his rule the Arab began to enter the eastern side, and by 641 AD the Arab conquest swept the land, and brought in a large part<72>perhaps the majority<74>of the ancestors of the present inhabitants. After 3 centuries the Tunisians<6E>the old Libyans<6E>conquered Egypt again. The later administrations by Syrians, Circassians, Turks and others probably made no change in the general population. The economic changes of the past century have brought in Greeks, Italians and other foreigners to the large towns; but all these only amount to an eightieth of the population. The Coptics are the descendants of the very mixed Egyptians of Roman age, kept separate from the Arab invaders by their Christianity. They are mainly in Upper Egypt, where some villages are entirely Coptic, and are distinguished by their superior cleanliness, regularity, and the freedom of the women from unwholesome seclusion. The Coptics, though only a fifteenth of the population, have always had a large share of official posts, owing to their intelligence and ability being above that of the Muslim.<P>1. 1st and 2d Ages: Prehistoric:<P>In dealing with the history, we here follow the dating which was believed and followed by the Egyptians themselves. All the monumental remains agree with this, so far as they can check it; and the various arbitrary reductions that have been made on some periods are solely due to some critics preferring their internal sense to all the external facts. For the details involved in the chronology, see Historical Studies, II (British School of Archaeology in Egypt). The general outline of the periods is given here, and the detailed view of the connection with Old Testament history is treated in later sections.<P>1st Age.<P>The prehistoric age begins probably about 8000 BC, as soon as there was a sufficient amount of Nile deposit to attract a settled population. The desert river valley of Egypt was probably one of the latest haunts of steatopygous Paleolithic man of the Bushman type. So soon as there was an opening for a pastoral or agricultural people, he was forced away by settlers from Libya. These settlers were clad in goatskins, and made a small amount of pottery by hand; they knew also of small quantities of copper, but mainly used flint, of which they gradually developed the finest working known in any age. They rapidly advanced in civilization. Their pottery of red polished ware was decorated with white clay patterns, exactly like the pottery still made in the mountains of Algeria. The forms of it were very varied and exquisitely regular, although made without the wheel. Their hardstone vases are finer than any of those of the historic ages. They adopted spinning, weaving and woodwork.<P>2nd Age.<P>Upon these people came in others probably from the East, who brought in the use of the Arab face-veil, the belief in amulets, and the Persian lapis lazuli. Most of the previous forms of pottery disappear, and nearly all the productions are greatly altered. Copper became common, while gold, silver and lead were also known. Heliopolis was probably a center of rule.<P>2. 3d Age: Ist and IId Dynasties:<P>About 5900 BC a new people came in with the elements of the art of writing, and a strong political ability of organization. Before 5800 BC they had established kings at Abydos in Upper Egypt, and for 3 centuries they gradually increased their power. On the carved slates which they have left, the standards of the allied tribes are represented; the earliest in style shows the standard of Koptos, the next has a standard as far north as Hermopolis, and the latest bears the standard of Letopolis, and shows the conquest of the Fayum, or perhaps one of the coast lakes. This last is of the first king of the Ist Dynasty, Mena.<P>The conquest of all Egypt is marked by the beginning of the series of numbered dynasties beginning with Mena, at about 5550 BC. The civilization rapidly advanced. The art was at its best under the third king, Zer, and thence steadily declined. Writing was still ideographic under Mena, but became more syllabic and phonetic toward the end of the dynasty. The work in hardstone was at its height in the vases of the early part of the Ist Dynasty, when an immense variety of beautiful stones appear. It greatly fell off on reaching the IId Dynasty. The tombs were all of timber, built in large pits in the ground.<P>3. 4th Age: IIIrd through VIth Dynasties:<P>The IInd Dynasty fell about 5000 BC, and a new power rapidly raised the art from an almost barbarous state to its highest triumphs by about 4750 BC, when the pyramid building was started. Khufu, the builder of the Great Pyramid in the IVth Dynasty, was one of the greatest rulers of Egypt. He organized the administration on lines which lasted for ages. He reformed the religious system, abolishing the endowments, and substituting models for the sacrifice of animals. He trained the largest body of skilled labor that ever appeared, for the building of his pyramid, the greatest and most accurate structure that the world has ever seen. The statuary of this age is more lifelike than that of any later age. The later reigns show steady decay in the character of work, with less dignity and more superficiality in the article<P>4. 5th Age: VIIth through XIVth Dynasties:<P>By about 4050 BC, the decline of Egypt allowed of fresh people pressing in from the North, probably connected with Crete. There are few traces of these invaders; a curious class of barbaric buttons used as seals are their commonest remains. Probably the so-called "Hyksos sphinxes" and statues are of these people, and belong to the time of their attaining power in Egypt. By 3600 BC, the art developed into the great ages of the XIth to the XIIth Dynasties which lasted about 2 centuries. The work is more scholastic and less natural than before; but it is very beautiful and of splendid accuracy. The exquisite jewelry of Dahshur is of this age. After some centuries of decay this civilization passed away.<P>5. 6th Age: XVth through XXIVth Dynasties:<P>The Semitic tribes had long been filtering into Egypt, and Babylonian Semites even ruled the land until the great migration of the Hyksos took place about 2700 BC. These tribes were ruled by kings entitled "princes of the desert," like the Semitic Absha, or Abishai, shown in the tomb of Beni-hasan, as coming to settle in Egypt. By 1700 BC the Berbers who had adopted the Egyptian civilization pressed down from the south, and ejected the Hyksos rule. This opened the most flourishing period of Egyptian history, the XVIIIth Dynasty, 1587-1328 BC. The profusion of painted tombs at Thebes, which were copied and popularized by Gardner Wilkinson, has made the life of this period very familiar to us. The immense temples of Karnak and of Luqsor, and the finest of the Tombs of the Kings have impressed us with the royal magnificence of this age. The names of Thothmes I and III, of the great queen Hatshepsut, of the magnificent Amenhotep III, and of the monotheist reformer Akchenaton are among those best known in the history. Their foreign connections we shall notice later.<P>The XIXth and XXth Dynasties were a period of continual degradation from the XVIIIth. Even in the best work of the 6th Age there is hardly ever the real solidity and perfection which is seen in that of the 4th or 5th Ages. But under the Ramessides cheap effects and showy imitations were the regular system. The great Rameses II was a great advertiser, but inferior in power to half a dozen kings of the previous dynasty. In the XXth Dynasty one of the royal daughters married the high priest of Amen at Thebes; and on the unexpected death of the young Rameses V, the throne reverted to his uncle Rameses VI, whose daughter then became the heiress, and her descendants, the high priests of Amen, became the rightful rulers. This priestly rule at Thebes; beginning in 1102 BC, was balanced by a purely secular rule of the north at Tanis (Zoan). These lasted until the rise of Sheshenq I (Shishak) in 952 BC, the founder of the XXIId Dynasty. His successors gradually decayed till the fall of the XXIIIrd Dynasty in 721 BC. The Ethiopian XXVIth Dynasty then held Egypt as a province of Ethiopia, down to 664 BC.<P>6. 7th Age: XXVth Dynasty to Roman Times:<P>It is hard to say when the next age began<61>perhaps with the Ethiopians; but it rose to importance with the XXVIth Dynasty under Psamtek (Psammitichos I), 664-610 BC, and continued under the well-known names of Necoh, Hophra and Amasis until overthrown by the Persians in 525 BC. From 405 to 342 the Egyptians were independent; then the Persians again crushed them, and in 332 they fell into the hands of the Macedonians by the conquest of Alexander.<P>The Macedonian Age of the Ptolemies was one of the richest and most brilliant at its start, but soon faded under bad rulers till it fell hopelessly to pieces and succumbed to the Roman subjection in 30 BC. From that time Egypt was ground by taxation, and steadily impoverished. By 300 AD it was too poor to keep even a copper currency in circulation, and barter became general. Public monuments entirely ceased to be erected, and Decius in 250 AD is the last ruler whose name was written in the old hieroglyphs, which were thenceforward totally forgotten. After three more centuries of increasing degradation and misery, the Arab invasion burst upon the land, and a few thousand men rode through it and cleared out the remaining effete garrisons of the empire in 641 AD.<P>7. 8th Age: Arabic:<P>The Arab invasion found the country exhausted and helpless; repeated waves of tribes poured in, and for a generation or two there was no chance of a settlement. Gradually the majority of the inhabitants were pressed into Islam, and by about 800 AD a strong government was established from Bagdad, and Egypt rapidly advanced. In place of being the most impoverished country it became the richest land of the Mediterranean. The great period of medieval Egypt was under the guidance of the Mesopotamian civilization, 800-969 AD. The Tunisian dominion of the Fatimites, 969-1171, was less successful. Occasionally strong rulers arose, such as Salah-ed-Din (Saladin), but the age of the Mamalukes, 1250-1577, was one of steady decline. Under the Turkish dominion,1517, Egypt was split up into many half-independent counties, whose rulers began by yielding tribute, but relapsed into ignoring the Caliphate and living in continual internal feuds. In 1771 Aly Bey, a slave, succeeded in conquering Syria. The French and British quarrel left Muhamed Aly to rise supreme, and to guide Egypt for over 40 years. Again Egypt conquered Syria, 1831-39, but was compelled by Europe to retreat. The opening of the Suez Canal (1869) necessarily led to the subjection of Egypt to European direction.<P>8. Early Foreign Connections:<P>The foreign connections of Egypt have been brought to light only during the last 20 years. In place of supposing that Egypt was isolated until the Greek conquest, we now see that it was in the closest commercial relation with the rest of the world throughout its history. We have already noted the influences which entered by conquest. During the periods of high civilization in Egypt, foreign connections came into notice by exploration and by trade. The lazuli of Persia was imported in the prehistoric age, as well as the emery of Smyrna. In the Ist Dynasty, Egypt conquered and held Sinai for the sake of the turquoise mines. In the IIIrd Dynasty, large fleets of ships were built, some as much as 160 ft. long; and the presence of much pottery imported from Crete and the north, even before this, points to a Mediterranean trade. In the Vth Dynasty, King Unas had relations with Syria. From the XIIth Dynasty comes the detailed account of the life of an Egyptian in Palestine (Sanehat); and Cretan pottery of this age is found traded into Egypt.<P>III. The Old Testament Connections.<P>1. Semitic Connections:<P>The Hyksos invasion unified the rule of Syria and Egypt, and Syrian pottery is often found in Egypt of this age. The return of the wave, when Egypt drove out the Hyksos, and conquered Syria out to the Euphrates, was the greatest expansion of Egypt. Tahutmes I set up his statue on the Euphrates, and all Syria was in his hands. Tahutmes III repeatedly raided Syria, bringing back plunder and captives year by year throughout most of his reign. The number of Syrian artists and of Syrian women brought into Egypt largely changed the style of art and the standard of beauty. Amenhotep III held all Syria in peace, and recorded his triumphs at the Euphrates on the walls of the temple of Soleb far up in Nubia. His monotheist son, Amenhotep IV, took the name of Akhenaton, "the glory of the sun\'s disc," and established the worship of the radiant sun as the Aton, or Adon of Syria. The cuneiform letters from Tell el-Amarna place all this age before us in detail. There are some from the kings of the Amorites and Hittites, from Naharain and even Babylonia, to the great suzerain Amenhotep III. There is also the long series describing the gradual loss of Syria under Akhenaton, as written by the governors and chiefs, of the various towns. The main letters are summarized in the Students\' History of Egypt, II, and full abstracts of all the letters are in Syria and Egypt, arranged in historical order.<P>Pal was reconquered by Seti I and his son Rameses II, but they only held about a third of the extent which formerly belonged to Amenhotep III. Merenptah, son of Rameses, also raided Southern Palestine. After that; it was left alone till the raid of Sheshenq in 933 BC. The only considerable assertion of Egyptian power was in Necoh\'s two raids up to the Euphrates, in 609 and 605 BC. But Egypt generally held the desert and a few minor points along the south border of Palestine. The Ptolemies seldom possessed more than that, their aspirations in Syria not lasting as permanent conquests. They were more successful in holding Cyprus.<P>2. Abramic Times:<P>We now come to the specific connections of Egypt with the Old Testament. The movement of the family of Abram from Ur in the south of Mesopotamia up to Haran in the north (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',11,31);">Ge 11:31</a>) and thence down Syria into Egypt (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',12,5,10);">Ge 12:5, 10</a>) was like that of the earlier Semitic "princes of the desert," when they entered Egypt as the Hyksos kings about 2600 BC. Their earlier dominion was the XVth Dynasty of Egypt, and that was followed by another movement, the XVIth Dynasty, about 2250 BC, which was the date of the migration of Terah from Ur. Thus the Abramic family took part in the second Hyksos movement. The cause of these tribal movements has been partly explained by Mr. Huntington\'s researches on the recurrence of dry periods in Asia (Royal Geogr. Soc., May 26, 1910: The Pulse of Asia). Such lack of rain forces the desert peoples on to the cultivated lands, and then later famines are recorded. The dry age which pushed the Arab tribes on to the Mediterranean in 640 AD was succeeded by famines in Egypt during 6 centuries So as soon as Abram moved into Syria a famine pushed him on to Egypt (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',12,10);">Ge 12:10</a>). To this succeeded other famines in Canaan (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',26,1);">Ge 26:1</a>), and later in both Canaan and Egypt (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',41,56);">Ge 41:56</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',43,1);">43:1</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',47,13);">47:13</a>). The migration of Abram was thus conditioned by the general dry period, which forced the second Hyksos movement of which it was a part. The culture of the Hyksos was entirely nomadic, and agrees in all that we can trace with the patriarchal culture pictured in Gen.<P>3. Circumcision:<P>Circumcision was a very ancient mutilation in Egypt, and is still kept up there by both Muslim and Christian. It was first adopted by Abram for Ishmael, the son of the Egyptian Hagar (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',16,3);">Ge 16:3</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',17,23);">17:23</a>), before Isaac was promised. Hagar married Ishmael to an Egyptian (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',21,21);">Ge 21:21</a>), so that the Ishmaelites, or Hagarenes, of Gilead and Moab were three-quarters Egyptian.<P>At Gerar, in the south of Palestine, Egyptian was the prevailing race and language, as the general of Abimelech was Phichol, the Egyptian name Pa-khal, "the Syrian," showing that the Gerarites were not Syrians.<P>4. Joseph:<P>The history of Joseph rising to importance as a capable slave is perfectly natural in Egypt at that time, and equally so in later periods down to our own days. That this occurred during the Hyksos period is shown by the title given to Joseph<70>Abrekh, (\'abhrekh) (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',41,43);">Ge 41:43</a>) which is Abarakhu, the high Babylonian title. The names Zaphnath-paaneah, Asenath, and Potipherah have been variously equated in Egyptian, Naville seeing forms of the XVIIIth Dynasty in them, but Spiegelberg, with more probability, seeing types of names of the XXIInd Dynasty or later. The names are most likely an expansion of the original document; but there is not a single feature or incident in the relations of Joseph to the Egyptians which is at all improbable from the history and civilization that we know. See <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=JOSEPH">JOSEPH</a>.<P>5. Descent into Egypt:<P>The descent into Egypt and sojourn there are what might be expected of any Semitic tribe at this time. The allocation in Goshen (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',47,27);">Ge 47:27</a>) was the most suitable, as that was on the eastern border of the Delta, at the mouth of the Wady Tumilat, and was a district isolated from the general Egyptian population. The whole of Goshen is not more than 100 square miles, being bounded by the deserts, and by the large Egyptian city of Budastis on the west. The accounts of the embalming for 40 days and mourning for 70 days (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',50,3);">Ge 50:3</a>), and putting in a coffin (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',50,26);">Ge 50:26</a>) are exact. The 70 days\' mourning existed both in the Ist Dynasty and in the XXth.<P>6. The Oppression:<P>The oppression in Egypt began with a new king that knew not Joseph. This can hardly be other than the rise of the Berber conquerors who took the Delta from the Hyksos at the beginning of the XVIIIth Dynasty, 1582 BC, and expelled the Hyksos into Syria. It could not be later than this, as the period of oppression in Egypt is stated at 4 centuries (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',15,13);">Ge 15:13</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',7,6);">Ac 7:6</a>), and the Exodus cannot be later than about 1220 BC, which leaves 360 years for the oppression. Also this length of oppression bars any much earlier date for the Exodus. The 360 years of oppression from 430 of the total sojourn in Egypt, leaves 70 years of freedom there. As Joseph died at 110 (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',50,26);">Ge 50:26</a>), this implies that he was over 40 when his family came into Egypt, which would be quite consistent with the history.<P>7. The Historic Position:<P>The store cities Pithom and Raamses are the sites Tell el-Maskhuta and Tell Rotab in the Wady Tumilat, both built by Rameses II as frontier defenses. It is evident then that the serving with rigor was under that king, probably in the earlier part of his long reign of 67 years (1300-1234 BC), when he was actively campaigning in Palestine. This is shown in the narrative, for Moses was not yet born when the rigor began (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',1,\'1-\');">Ex 1</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',2,2);">2:2</a>), and he grew up, slew an Egyptian, and then lived long in Midian before the king of Egypt died (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',2,23);">Ex 2:23</a>), perhaps 40 or 50 years after the rigorous servitude began, for he is represented as being 80 at the time of the Exodus (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',34,7);">De 34:7</a>). These numbers are probably not precise, but as a whole they agree well enough with Egyptian history. After the king died, Moses returned to Egypt, and began moving to get his kin away to the eastern deserts, with which he had been well acquainted in his exile from Egypt. A harsher servitude ensues, which might be expected from the more vigorous reign of Merenptah, after the slackness of the old age of Rameses. The campaign of Merenptah against Israel and other people in Palestine would not make him any less severe in his treatment of Semites in Egypt.<P>8. The Plagues:<P>The plagues are in the order of usual seasonal troubles in Egypt, from the red unwholesome Nile in June, through the frogs, insects, hail and rain, locusts, and sandstorms in March. The death of the firstborn was in April at the Passover.<P>9. Date of the Exodus:<P>The date of the Exodus is indicated as being about 1200 BC, by the 4 centuries of oppression, and by the names of the land and the city of Rameses (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',47,4);">Ge 47:4</a>; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',1,11);">Ex 1:11</a>). The historical limit is that the Egyptians were incessantly raiding Palestine down to 1194 BC, and then abandoned it till the invasion of Shishak. As there is no trace of these Egyptian invasions during all the ups and downs of the age of the Judges, it seems impossible to suppose the Israelites entered Canaan till after 1194 BC. The setting back of the Exodus much earlier has arisen from taking three simultaneous histories of the Judges as consecutive, as we shall notice farther on. The facts stated above, and the length of all three lines of the priestly genealogies, agree completely with the Egyptian history in putting the Exodus at about 1220 BC, and the entry into Canaan about 1180 BC.<P>10. Route of the Exodus:<P>The route of the Exodus was first a concentration at Raamses or Tell Rotab, in the Wady Tumliat, followed by a march to Succoth, a general name for the region of Bedawy booths; from there to Etham in the edge of the wilderness, about the modern Nefisheh. Thence they turned and encamped before Pi-hahiroth, the Egyptian Pa-qaheret, a Serapeum. Thus turning south to the west of the Red Sea (which then extended up to Tell el-Maskhuta), they had a Migdol tower behind them and Baal-zephon opposite to them. They were thus "entangled in the land." Then the strong east wind bared the shallows, and made it possible to cross the gulf and reach the opposite shore. They then went "three days in the wilderness," the three days\' route without water to Marah, the bitter spring of Hawara, and immediately beyond reached Elim, which accords entirely with the Wady Gharandel. Thence they encamped by the Red Sea. All of this account exactly agrees with the traditional route down the west of the Sinaitic peninsula; it will not agree with any other route, and there is no reason to look for any different location of the march.<P>See <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=EXODUS,+THE+BOOK+OF,+1">EXODUS 1</a>.<P>11. Numbers of the Exodus:<P>The numbers of the Israelites have long been a difficulty. On the one hand are the census lists (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',1,\'1-\');">Nu 1</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',2,\'1-\');">2</a>;<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',26,\'1-\');">26</A>), with their summaries of 600,000 men besides children and a mixed multitude (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',12,37,38);">Ex 12:37-38</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',38,26);">38:26</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',1,46);">Nu 1:46</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',11,21);">11:21</a>). On the other hand there are the exact statements of there being 22,273 firstborn, that is, fathers of families (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',3,43);">Nu 3:43</a>), and that 40,000 armed men entered Canaan with Joshua (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',4,13);">Jos 4:13</a>), also the 35,000 who fought at Ai (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',8,3,12);">Jos 8:3-12</a>), and the 32,000 who fought against Midian (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',7,3);">Jud 7:3</a>). Besides these, there are the general considerations that only 5,000 to 10,000 people could live in Goshen, that the Amalekites with whom the Israelites were equally matched (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',17,11);">Ex 17:11</a>) could not have exceeded about 5,000 in Sinai, that Moses judged all disputes, and that two midwives attended all the Israelite births, which would be 140 a day on a population of 600,000. Evidently, the statements of numbers are contradictory, and the external evidence is all in accord with lesser numbers. Proposals to reduce arbitrarily the larger numbers have been frequent; but there is one likely line of misunderstanding that may have originated the increase. In the census lists of the tribes, most of the hundreds in the numbers are 400 or 500, others are near those, and there are none whatever on 000,100,800 or 900. Evidently, the hundreds are independent of the thousands. Now in writing the statements, such as "Reuben, 46,500," the original list would be 46 \'eleph, 5 hundred people, and \'eleph means either "thousands" or else "groups" or "families." Hence, a census of 46 tents, 500 people, would be ambiguous, and a later compiler might well take it as 46,500. In this way the whole census of 598 tents, 5,550 people, would be misread as 603,550 people. The checks on this are, that the number per tent should be reasonable in all cases, that the hundreds should not fluctuate more than the tents between the first and last census, and that the total should correspond to the known populations of Goshen and of Sinai; these requirements all agree with this reading of the lists. The ulterior details beyond the Egyptian period are dealt with in Egypt and Israel,45,55.<P>See <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=EXODUS,+THE+BOOK+OF,+3-4">EXODUS 4</a>.<P>12. Israel in Canaan:<P>Two points need notice here as incidentally bearing on the Egyptian connections:<P>(1) the Israelites in Palestine before the Exodus, indicated by Merenptah triumphing over them there before 1230 BC, and the raids during the Egyptian residence (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',7,21);">1Ch 7:21</a>); <P>(2) the triple history of the Judges, west, north, and east, each totaling to 120 years, in accord with the length of the four priestly genealogies (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',6,\'4-8\');">1Ch 6:4-8</a>, <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',6,\'22-28\');">22-28; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',6,\'33-35\');">33-35</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',6,\'39-43\');">39-43</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',6,\'44-47\');">44-47</a>), and showing that the dates are about 1220 BC the Exodus, 1180 BC the entry to Canaan, 1150 BC the beginning of Judges, 1030 BC Saul (Egypt and Israel, 52-58).<P>13. Hadad:<P>The connections with the monarchy soon begin. David and Joab attacked Edom (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',8,14);">2Sa 8:14</a>), and Hadad, the young king, was carried off by his servants to Egypt for safety. The Pharaoh who received and supported him must have been Siamen, the king of Zoan, which city was then an independent capital apart from the priest kings of Thebes (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',11,\'15-22\');">1Ki 11:15-22</a>). Hadad was married to the Egyptian queen\'s sister when he grew up, probably in the reign of Pasebkhanu II.<P>14. Pharaoh\'s Daughter:<P>The Pharaoh whose daughter was married to Solomon must have been the same Pasebkhanu; he reigned from 987-952 BC, and the marriage was about 970 in the middle of the reign. Another daughter of Pasebkhanu was Karamat, who was the wife of Shishak. Thus Solomon and Shishak married two sisters, and their aunt was queen of Edom. This throws light on the politics of the kingdoms. Probably Solomon had some child by Pharaoh\'s daughter, and the Egyptians would expect that to be the heir. Shishak\'s invasion, on the death of Solomon, was perhaps based upon the right of a nephew to the throne of Judah.<P>15. Shishak:<P>The invasion of Shishak (Egyptian, Sheshenq) took place probably at the end of his reign. His troops were Lubim (Libyans), Sukkim (men of Succoth, the east border) and Kushim (Ethiopians). The account of the war is on the side of the great fore-court at Karnak, which shows long lists of places in Judah, agreeing with the subjugation recorded in <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',14,25,26);">1Ki 14:25-26</a>, and <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',12,\'2-4\');">2Ch 12:2-4</a>.<P>16. Zerakh:<P>Zerakh, or Usarkon, was the next king of Egypt, the son of Karamat, Solomon\'s sister-in-law. He invaded Judah unsuccessfully in 903 BC (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',14,9);">2Ch 14:9</a>) with an army of Libyans and Sudanis (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',16,8);">2Ch 16:8</a>). A statue of the Nile, dedicated by him, and naming his descent from Karamat and Pasebkhanu, is in the British Museum.<P>17. The Ethiopians:<P>After a couple of centuries the Ethiopian kings intervened. Shabaka was appointed viceroy of Egypt by his father Piankhy, and is described by the Assyrians as Sibe, commander-in-chief of Muzri, and by the Hebrews as Sua or So, king of Egypt (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',17,4);">2Ki 17:4</a>). Tirhakah next appears as a viceroy, and Hezekiah was warned against trusting to him (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',19,9);">2Ki 19:9</a>). These two kings touch on Jewish history during their vice-royalties, before their full reigns began. Necoh next touches on Judah in his raid to Carchemish in 609 BC, when he slew Josiah for opposing him (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',23,29,30);">2Ki 23:29-30</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',35,\'20-24\');">2Ch 35:20-24</a>).<P>18. Tahpanhes:<P>After the taking of Jerusalem, for fear of vengeance for the insurrection of Ishmael (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',25,25,26);">2Ki 25:25-26</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',40,\1-\');">Jer 40</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',41,\'1-\');">Jer 41</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',42,\'1-\');">Jer 42</a>), the remnant of the Jews fled to the frontier fortress of Egypt, Tahpanhes, Tehaphnehes, Greek Daphnae, modern Defenneh, about 10 miles west of the present Suez Canal (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',43,\'7-13\');">Jer 43:7-13</a>). The brick pavement in front of the entrance to the fortress there, in which Jeremiah hid the stones, has been uncovered and the fortress completely planned. It was occupied by Greeks, who there brought Greek words and things into contact with the traveling Jews for a couple of generations before the fall of Jerusalem.<P>19. Hophra:<P>The prophecy that Hophra would be delivered to them that sought his life (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',44,30);">Jer 44:30</a>) was fulfilled, as he was kept captive by his successor, Amasis, for 3 years, and after a brief attempt at liberty, he was strangled.<P>20. The Jews at Syene:<P>The account of the Jews settled in Egypt (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',44,\'1-\');">Jer 44</a>) is singularly illustrated by the Aramaic Jewish papyri found at Syene (Aswan). These show the use of Aramaic and of oaths by Yahu, as stated of 5 cities in Egypt (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',19,18);">Isa 19:18</a>). The colony at Syene was well-to-do, though not rich; they were householders who possessed all their property by regular title-deeds, who executed marriage settlements, and were fully used to litigation, having in deeds of sale a clause that no other deed could be valid. The temple of Yahu filled the space between two roads, and faced upon 3 houses, implying a building about 60 or 70 ft. wide. It was built of hewn stone, with stone columns, 7 gates, and a cedar roof. It was destroyed in 410, after lasting from before Cambyses in 525 BC, and a petition for rebuilding it was granted in 407.<P>21. The New Jerusalem of Oniah:<P>The most flourishing period of the Jews in Egypt was when Oniah IV, the son of the rightful high priest Oniah, was driven from Jerusalem by the abolition of Jewish worship and ordinances under Antiochus. In 170 BC he fled to Egypt, and there established a new Jerusalem with a temple and sacrifices as being the only way to maintain the Jewish worship. Oniah IV was a valiant man, general to queen Cleopatra I; and he offered to form the Jewish community into a frontier guard on the east of Egypt, hating the Syrians to the uttermost, if the Jews might form their own community. They so dominated the eastern Delta that troops of Caesar could not pass from Syria to Alexandria without their assent. The new Jerusalem was 20 miles north of Cairo, a site now known as Tell el-Yehudiyeh. The great mound of the temple still remains there, with the Passover ovens beneath it, and part of the massive stone fortifications on the front of it. This remained a stronghold of free Judaism until after Titus took Jerusalem; and it was only when the Zealots tried to make it a center of insurrection, that at last it was closed and fell into decay. Josephus is the original authority for this history (see Egypt and Israel, 97-110).<P>22 The Egyptian Jew:<P>The Jew in Egypt followed a very different development from the Babylonian Jew, and this Egyptian type largely influenced Christianity. In the colony at Syene a woman named "Trust Yahweh" had no objection to swearing by the Egyptian goddess Seti when making an Egyptian contract; and in <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',44,\'15-19\');">Jer 44:15-19</a>, the Jews boasted of their heathen worship in Egypt. Oniah had no scruple in establishing a temple and sacrifices apart from Jerusalem, without any of the particularism of the Maccabean zealots. Philo at Alexandria labored all his life for the union of Jewish thought with Greek philosophy. The Hermetic books show how, from 500 to 200 BC, religious thought was developing under eclectic influence of Egyptian Jewish, Persian, Indian and Greek beliefs, and producing the tenets about the second God, the Eternal Son, who was the Logos, and the types of Conversion, as the Divine Ray, the New Birth, and the Baptism. Later the Wisdom literature of Alexandria, 200-100 BC, provided the basis of thought and simile on which the Pauline Epistles were built. The great wrench in the history of the church came when it escaped from the Babylonian-Jewish formalism of the Captivity, which ruled at Jerusalem, and grew into the wider range of ideas of the Alexandrian Jews. These ideas had been preserved in Egypt from the days of the monarchy, and had developed a great body of religious thought and phraseology from their eclectic connections. The relations of Christianity with Egypt are outside our scope, but some of them will be found in Egypt and Israel, 124-41.<P>23. Cities and Places Alphabetically:<P>The Egyptian cities, places and peoples named in the Old Testament may briefly be noted. <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=AVEN">AVEN</a> (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',30,17);">Eze 30:17</a>) or <!--<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ON+(1)"> --><a href="file:./study/isbe/BLB/study/isbe/6500.html?toc=6557">ON</a> (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',41,45);">Ge 41:45</a>) is the \'An of Egyptian, the Greek Heliopolis, now Matarieh, 7 miles north of Cairo. It was the seat of prehistoric government, the royal emblems were kept there as the sacred relics of the temple, and its high priest was "the great seer," one of the greatest of the religious officials. The schools of Heliopolis were celebrated, and it seems to have always been a center of learning. The site is now marked by the great enclosure of the temple, and one obelisk of Senusert (XIIth Dynasty). It was here that the Egyptian kings had at their installation to come and bathe in the lake in which the sun bathes daily, the \'Ainesh-Shems, or "Lake of the Sun" of the Arabs, connected with the fresh spring here which Christian tradition attributes to the visit of the Virgin and Child. The great sycamore tree here is the successor of that under which the Virgin is said to have rested.<P><a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=BAAL-ZEPHON">BAAL-ZEPHON</a> was a shrine on the eastern site of the head of the Red Sea, a few miles south of Ismailiyeh; no trace is now known of it (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',14,2);">Ex 14:2</a>).<P><a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=CUSH+(1)">CUSHIM</a> or Ethiopians were a part of the Egyptian army of Shishak and of Usarkon (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',12,3);">2Ch 12:3</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',16,8);">16:8</a>). The army was in 4 brigades, that of Ptah of Memphis, central Egypt; that of Amen of Thebes, Southern Egypt and Ethiopia; that of Set of the eastern frontier (Sukkim); and that of Ra, Heliopolis and the Delta.<P>COSHEN was a fertile district at the west end of the Wady Tumilat, 40 to 50 miles northeast of Cairo. It was bounded by the deserts on the north and southeast, and by the Egyptian city of Bubastis on the west. Its area was not over 100 square miles; it formerly supported 4,000 Bedouin and now about 12,000 cultivators.<P><a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=LUBIM">LUBIM</a>, the Libyans who formed part of the Egyptian army as light-armed archers, from very early times.<P><a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=MIGDOL">MIGDOL</a> is the name of any tower, familiar also as Magdala. It was applied to some watchtower on the west of the Red Sea, probably on the high land above the Serapeum.<P><a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=NO-AMON">NO</a> is Thebes, in Assyrian Nia, from the Egyptian Nu, "the city." This was the capital of the XIIth Dynasty, and of the XVIIth-XXIst Dynasties. Owing to the buildings being of sandstone, which is not of much use for reworking, they have largely remained since the desolation of the city under Ptolemy X. The principal divisions of the site are:<P>(1) Karnak, with the temple of the XIIth Dynasty, built over by all the successive kings of the XVIIIth Dynasty, and enlarged by Seti I and Rameses II, and by Shishak, Tirhakah, and the Ptolemies. The whole temple of Amon and its subsidiary temples form the largest mass of ruins that is known.<P>(2) Luqsor, the temple to commemorate the divine birth of Amenhotep III (1440 BC), added to by Rameses II.<P>(3) The funerary temples, bordering the western shore, of the kings of the XVIIIth to XXth Dynasties. These have mostly been destroyed, by the unscrupulous quarrying done by each king on the work of his predecessors; the only temple in fair condition is that of Rameses III, which is left because no later king required its material for building.<P>(4) The great cemetery, ranging from the splendid rock halls of the Tombs of the Kings, covered with paintings, down to the humblest graves. For any detailed account see either Baedeker\'s or Murray\'s Guides, or Weigall\'s Guide to Antiquities.<P><a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=NOPH">NOPH</a>, the Egyptian Men-nofer, Greek Memphis, now Mitraheny, 12 miles south of Cairo. This was the capital from the foundation at the beginning of the dynasties. Thebes and Alexandria shared its importance, but it was the seat of government down to the Arab invasion. In Roman times it was as large as London north of the Thames. The outlying parts are now all buried by the rise of the soil, but more than a mile length of ruins yet remains, which are now being regularly worked over by the British School. The heart of the city is the great metropolitan temple of Ptah, nearly all of which is now under 10 feet of soil, and under water most of the year. This is being excavated in sections, as it is all private property. At the north end of the ruins is the palace mound, on which has been cleared the palace of Apries (Hophra). Other temples have been located, as well as the foreign quarter containing early Greek pottery and the temple of Proteus named by Herodotus (see <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=MEMPHIS">Memphis, I, II, III</a>).<P><a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=PATHROS">PATHROS</a> is the usual name for Upper Egypt in the prophets. It is the Egyptian Pa-ta-res, "the south land."<P><a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=PI-BESETH">PI-BESETH</a> is the Egyptian Pa-Bast, Greek Bubastis, at the eastern side of the Delta, the city of the cat-headed goddess Bast. The ruins are still large, and the temple site has been excavated, producing sculptures from the IVth Dynasty onward.<P><a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=PITHOM">PITHOM</a> is the Egyptian Pa-Tum, the city of the Sun-god Tum or Atmu, who was worshipped on the east of the Delta. The site has remains of the fortress of Rameses II, built by the Israelites, and is now known as Tell el-Maskhuta, 11 miles west of Ismailia.<P><a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=RAAMSES">RAAMSES</a> is the other city built by the Israelites, now Tell Rotab, 20 miles west of Ismailia. A wailed camp existed here from early times, and the temple of Rameses was built on the top of the older ruins. A large part of the temple front is now at Philadelphia, excavated by the British School.<P><a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=SIN+(2)">SIN</a> is the Greek Pelusium, Assyrian Siinu, Arabic Tineh, now some desolate mounds at the extreme east coast of Egypt.<P><a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=SUCCOTH+(2)">SUCCOTH</a> was the district of "booths," the eastern part of the Wady Tumilat. It was written in Egyptian Thuku and abbreviated to Thu in which form it appears as a Roman name. The people of Succoth were Sukkim, named in the army of Shishak (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',12,3);">2Ch 12:3</a>).<P><a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=SYENE">SYENE</a>, Hebrew Seweneh, modern Aswan, the southern border town of Egypt at the Cataract. The greater part of the old town was on the island of Elephantine. There the Jewish papyri were found, and that was probably the Jewish settlement with the temple of Yahu. The town on the eastern bank<6E>the present Aswan<61>was of less importance.<P><a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=TEHAPHNEHES">TAHPANHES, TEHAPHNEHES</a>, Greek Daphnae, Arabic Tell Defeneh. This was the first station on the Syrian road which touched the Nile canals, about 10 miles west of Kantara on the Suez Canal. It seems to have been founded by Psammetichus about 664 BC, to hold his Greek mercenaries. The fort, built by him, abounded in Greek pottery, and was finally desolated about 566 BC, as described by Herodotus. The fort and camp have been excavated; and the pavement described by Jeremiah (chapter 43), as opposite to the entrance, has been identified.<P><a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ZOAN">ZOAN</a>, Greek Tanis, Arabic San, is about 26 miles from the Suez Canal, and slightly more from the coast. The ruins of the temple are surrounded by the wall of Pasebkhanu, 80 ft. thick of brickwork, and a ring of town ruins rises high around it. The temple was built in the VIth Dynasty, adorned with many statues in the XIIth and XIIIth Dynasties, and under Rameses II had many large granite obelisks and statues, especially one colossus of the king in red granite about 90 ft. high. It is probable that the Pharaoh lived here at the time of the Exodus.<P>IV. The Civilization.<P>1. Language:<P>We now turn to some outline of the civilization of the Egyptians. The language had primitive relations with the Semitic and the Libyan. Perhaps one common stock has separated into three languages<65>Semitic, Egyptian, and Libyan. But though some basal words and grammar are in common, all the bulk of the words of daily life were entirely different in the three, and no one could be said to be derived from the other. Egyptian so far as we can see, is a separate language without any connection as close as that between the Indo-European group. From its proximity to Syria, Semitic loan words were often introduced, and became common in the XVIIIth Dynasty and fashionable in the XIXth. The language continually altered, and decayed in the later periods until Coptic is as different from it as Italian is from Latin.<P>2. Writing:<P>The writing was at first ideographic, using a symbol for each word. Gradually, signs were used phonetically; but the symbol, or some emblem of the idea of the word, continued to be added to it, now called a determinative. From syllabic signs purely alphabetic signs were produced by clipping and decay, so that by 1000 to 500 BC the writing was almost alphabetic. After that it became modified by the influence of the short Greek alphabet, until by 200 AD it was expressed in Greek letters with a few extra signs. The actual signs used were elaborate pictures of the objects in the early times, and even down to the later periods very detailed signs were carved for monumental purposes. But as early as the Ist Dynasty a very much simplified current hand had been started, and during the pyramid period this became hardly recognizable from the original forms. Later on this current hand, or hieratic, is a study by itself and was written much more fully than the hieroglyphs on monuments, as its forms were so corrupt that an ample spelling was needed to identify the word. By about 800 BC begins a much shortened set of signs, still more remote from their origins, known as demotic, which continued as the popular writing till Roman times. On public decrees the hieroglyphic and demotic are both given, showing that a knowledge of one was useless for reading the other, and that they were separate studies.<P>3. Literature:<P>The literature begins during the pyramid period, before 4000 BC, with biographies and collections of maxims for conduct; these show well-regulated society, and would benefit any modern community in which they were followed. In the XIIth Dynasty tales appear, occupied with magic and foreign travel and wonders. A long poem in praise of the king shows very regular versification and system, of the type of <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',136,\'1-\');">Ps 136</a>, the refrain differing in each stanza and being probably repeated in chorus, while the independent lines were sung by the leader. In the XVIIIth Dynasty, tales of character begin to develop and show much skill, long annals were recorded, and in the XIXth Dynasty there is an elaborate battle poem describing the valor of Rameses II. At about 700 BC there is a considerable tale which describes the quarrels of the rival chiefs, and the great fight regulated like a tournament by which the differences were settled. Such are the principal literary works apart from business documents.<P>4. Four Views of Future Life:<P>The religion of Egypt is an enormous subject, and that by which Egypt is perhaps most known. Here we can only give an outline of the growth and subdivisions of it. There never was any one religion in Egypt during historic times. There were at least four religions, all incompatible, and all believed in at once in varying degrees. The different religions can best be seen apart by their incongruity regarding the future life.<P>(1) The dead wandered about the cemetery seeking food, and were partly fed by the goddess in the sycamore tree. They therefore needed to have plates of food and jars of water in the tomb, and provided perpetually by their descendants in front of the doorway to the grave. The deceased is represented as looking out over this doorway in one case. Here came in the great principle of substitution. For the food, substitute its image which cannot decay, and the carved table of offerings results. For the farmstead of animals, substitute its carved image on the walls and the animal sculptures result. For the life of the family, substitute their carved figures doing all that was wanted, sacrificing and serving, and the family sculptures result. For the house, substitute a model upon the grave, and the pottery soul-houses appear with their furniture and provisions. For the servants, put their figures doing household work, and their service is eternal. For the master himself, put the most lifelike image that can be made, and his soul will occupy that as a restful home fitted for it. This principle is still believed in. Funeral offerings of food are still put even in Muslim graves, and a woman will visit a grave, and, removing a tile, will talk through a hole to her dead husband.<P>(2) The dead went to the kingdom of Osiris, to which only the good were admitted, while the evil were rejected, and consumed either by monsters or by fire. This heavenly kingdom was a complete duplicate of the earthly life. They planted and reaped, sported and played. And as the Egyptian felicity consisted in making others work for them, so each man was provided with a retinue of serfs to cultivate the land for him. These ushabti figures in later times usually number 400, and often 1 in 10 of them is clad as an overseer. A special chapter of the Book of the Dead is to be recited to animate them, and this, more or less abbreviated, is often inscribed upon the figures.<P>(3) The dead joined the company of the immortal gods, who float on the heavenly ocean in the boat of the sun. With them they have to face the terrors of the hours of the night when the sun goes through the underworld. Long charms and directions are needed for safety in this passage, and these form a large part of the funerary tests, especially on the Tombs of the Kings in the XVIIIth-XXIst Dynasties. To reach the boat of the sun a boat must be provided in the tomb, with its sailors and sails and oars. Such are frequent from the VIth-XIIIth Dynasties.<P>(4) The dead were carried off by the Hathor cow, or a bull, to wait for a bodily resurrection. In order to preserve the body for some life after the present age, each part must be protected by an appropriate amulet; hence, dozens of different amulets were placed on the body, especially from about 600-400 BC.<P>Now it will be seen that each of these beliefs contradicts the other three, and they represent, therefore, different religious origins.<P>5. Four Groups of Gods:<P>The mythology is similarly diverse, and was unified by uniting analogous gods. Hence, when we see the compounds such as Ptah-Sokar-Osiris, or Amen-Ra or Osiris-Khentamenti, it is clear that each god of the compound belongs to a different religion, like Pallas-Athene or Zeus-Labrandeus, in Greek compounds. So far as we can at present see, the gods linked with each of the beliefs about the soul are as follows:<P>(1) The Soul in the Tombs and Cemetery.<P>With this belief belong the animal gods, which form the earliest stratum of the religion; also Sokar the god of "Silence," and Mert Sokar, the "Lover of Silence," as the gods of the dead. With this was allied a belief in the soul sometimes going to the west, and hence, Khent-amenti, a jackal-headed god, "he who is in the west," became the god of the dead.<P>(2) The Soul in the Heavenly Kingdom.<P>Osiris is the lord of this kingdom, Isis his sister-wife, Horus their son, Nebhat (Nephthys) the sister of Isis, and Set her husband. Set also was regarded as coequal with Horus. This whole mythology results probably from the fusion of tribes who were originally monotheistic, and who each worshipped one of these deities. It is certain that the later parts of this mythology are tribal history, regarded as the victories and defeats of the gods whom the tribes worshipped.<P>(3) The Soul in the Sun-Boat.<P>Ra was the Sun-god, and in other forms worshipped as Khepera and Atmu. The other cosmic gods of the same group are Nut, the heaven, and her husband Geb, the earth; Shu, space, and his sister Tefnut. Anher the Sky-god belongs to Upper Egypt.<P>(4) The Mummy with Amulets, Preserved for a Future Life.<P>Probably to this group belong the gods of principles, Hathor the female principle; Min the male principle; Ptah the architect and creator of the universe; his spouse Maat, abstract truth and justice.<P>6. Foreign Gods:<P>Foreign gods frequently appear also in Egypt, mostly from Syria. Two importations were of great effect. Aton the radiant energy of the sun, the Adon or "lord," Adonai, Adonis, was introduced as a sole deity by Akhenaton 1380 BC, and all other gods were proscribed. This was a strictly rational and scientific religion, attributing all life and power to the action of the sun\'s rays; but it only lasted 20 years in Egypt, and then vanished. The other important worship was that of Zeus Sarapis. The Zeus statue is said to have been imported from Sinope by Ptolemy I, but the Sarapis was the god of Memphis, Osarhapi, the Osiris form of the Hapi bull. The Egyptian worshipped his old gods; the Greek was satisfied with Zeus; and both nations united in adoring Zeus Sarapis. The temples and ritual are too wide a subject to touch in our present space; but the essential principle was that of providing a banquet for the god, and feasting in his temple, not that of an expiatory sacrifice or burnt offering, which is Semitic.<P>7. Laws:<P>The laws are but little known until the late Greek accounts. Marriage was usual with a sister, but this may have been with a half-sister, as among the Greeks and early Hebrews. Polygamy was unusual, but was legal, as many as six wives being represented in one instance. Kings of course had unlimited harems. Divorce was unusual, but was probably easy. In Coptic times a marriage contract provides for divorce by either party, upon paying six times the marriage gift. Property was strictly guarded.<P>8. Character:<P>The national character was easygoing, kindly, never delighting in torture like the Assyrians and Romans, but liable to be too slack and careless. Firmness, decision and fortitude were held up as the leading virtues. The structure of society, the arts and the industries are outside of the scope of this article.<P>(For differing views on chronology and sites, see articles <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=EXODUS">EXODUS</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=WANDERINGS+OF+ISRAEL">WANDERINGS OF ISRAEL</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=PITHOM">PITHOM</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=RAAMSES">RAAMSES</a>, etc., and on individual kings, etc., articles under their names, and <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=EGYPTIAN+KINGS">EGYPTIAN KINGS</a>.)<P>LITERATURE.<P>Works in English, that are the most accessible, are stated in preference to foreign works, the references to which will be seen in the books stated below.<P>The Country: Baedeker\'s Egypt; on the flora, Petrie, Hawara, Biahmu, and Arsioe.<P>The History: Prehistoric: Petrie, Diospolis Parva, etc.; de Morgan, Recherches; Maspero, The Dawn of Civilization, The Struggle of the Nations, The Passing of the Empires; Petrie, Student\'s History of Egypt; Breasted, A History of Egypt, etc. On the Ist-IInd Dynasties, Petrie, Royal Tombs. On the IIId-VIth Dynasties, Petrie, The Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh; Murray, Saqqara Mastabas I. On the VIIth-XIVth Dynasties, Petrie, Gizeh and Rifeh; de Morgan, Dahchour, I, II. On the XVth-XXIVth Dynasties, Weigall, Guide to Antiquities; Baedeker on Thebes; Petrie, Six Temples at Thebes. On the XXVth Dynasty to Roman times, Petrie, Temple of Apries; Mahaffy, The Empires of the Ptolemies; Milne, History of Egypt under Roman Rule. On the early foreign connections, Petrie, Methods and Aims in Archaeology.<P>On the Semitic Connections: Petrie, Syria and Egypt from the Tell el-Amarna Tablets. On the Old Testament Connections: Petrie, Egypt and Israel.<P>On the Language: Murray, Elementary Grammar.<P>On the Writing and Literature: Erman, Life in Ancient Egypt; Petrie, Egyptian Tales, I, II.<P>On the Religion: Wiedemann, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians.<P>On the Customs: Wilkinson, Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians.<P>On the Arts: Petrie, The Arts and Crafts of Ancient Egypt.``135';
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isbe[2907]='Egypt, Brook (River, Stream) of``<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=BROOK+OF+EGYPT,+THE">BROOK OF EGYPT</a>`1';
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isbe[2908]='Egyptian Kings (Later)``<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=PHARAOH">PHARAOH</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=HOPHRA">HOPHRA</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=NECO">NECO</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=SHISHAK">SHISHAK</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=EGYPT">EGYPT</a>`1';
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isbe[2909]='Egyptian Versions`vur\'-shuns.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=COPTIC+VERSIONS">COPTIC VERSIONS</a>`1';
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isbe[2910]='Egyptian, the`e-jip\'-shan (ho Aiguptios):<P>Mentioned in <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',21,38);">Ac 21:38</a>, by Claudius Lysias as having "before these days stirred up to sedition and led out into the wilderness the four thousand men of the <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ASSASSINS">ASSASSINS</a>" (which see). Reference to this Egyptian and to the suppression of his rebellion by the procurator Felix is likewise found in Josephus (Ant., XX, viii, 6; BJ, II, xiii, 5).``1';
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isbe[2911]='Egyptians, Gospel According to the``<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=APOCRYPHAL+GOSPELS">APOCRYPHAL GOSPELS</a>`1';
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isbe[2912]='Ehi`e\'-hi (\'ehi):<P>Apparently a contracted form (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',46,21);">Ge 46:21</a>).`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=AHIRAM">AHIRAM</a>`1';
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isbe[2913]='Ehud`e\'-hud (ehudh, "united," "strong"):<P>A Benjamite, son of Gera, deliverer of Israel from oppression by Moab (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',3,\'15-30\');">Jud 3:15-30</a>). Gaining access alone to the presence of King Eglon under pretense of a secret errand connected with the payment of Israel\'s tribute, Ehud, a left-handed man, drew the sword he had concealed upon his right side, and thrust the king through. He locked the doors of the upper chamber after him, made his escape, and with the Israelites overcame Moab at the fords of the Jordan, slaying some 10,000. Ehud\'s name occurs again in the Benjamite genealogy (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',7,10);">1Ch 7:10</a>).``57';
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isbe[2914]='Either`e\'-ther, i\'-ther:<P>Often in the sense still common, "one or the other" (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',21,21);">1Ch 21:21</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',6,24);">Mt 6:24</a>, etc.), but also in the obsolete sense of "both" or "each" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',10,1);">Le 10:1</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',7,15);">1Ki 7:15</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',19,18);">Joh 19:18</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',22,2);">Re 22:2</a>), or in place of (Revised Version) "or" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',6,42);">Lu 6:42</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',15,8);">15:8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Phl\',3,12);">Php 3:12</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jam\',3,12);">Jas 3:12</a>).``1';
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isbe[2915]='Eker`e\'-ker (\'eqer, "root"):<P>A Jerahmeelite (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',2,27);">1Ch 2:27</a>).``1';
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isbe[2916]='Ekrebel`ek\'-re-bel (Ekrebel):<P>Appears only in Judith 7:18. It lay on the brook Mochmur, south of Dothart. It is identical with Akrabbein, of which Eusebius (Onomasticon) speaks as the capital of the district of Akrabattine. It corresponds to the modern \'Akrabeh, 8 miles southeast of Nablus.``1';
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isbe[2917]='Ekron; Ekronite`ek\'-ron, ek\'-ron-it \'eqron, "migration," "rooting out"; Akkaron:<P>The most northerly of the chief cities of the Philistines. It was not subdued by Joshua (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',13,3);">13:3</a>) but was allotted, in the division of the land, first to Judah and then to Dan (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',15,11,45,46);">Jos 15:11, 45-46</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',19,43);">19:43</a>). It was taken by Judah (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',1,18);">Jud 1:18</a>). The people of Ekron are prominent in the story of the ark in the land of the Philistines. It was they who proposed to have it sent back to Israel (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',5,10);">1Sa 5:10</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',6,16,17);">6:16-17</a>). After the defeat of the Philistines, when David killed Goliath, the Israelites pursued them to the gates of Ekron, which was evidently the nearest walled town in which the fugitives could take refuge (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',17,52);">1Sa 17:52</a>). It was the seat of the worship of the god Baalzebub, as appears in the account of the sickness and death of Ahaziah (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',1,2,3,16);">2Ki 1:2-3; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',6,16);">6:16</a>). It is included among other cities in the denunciations of Amos (<a onClick="return mV(\'Amo\',1,8);">1:8</a>) and of Jeremiah (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',25,20);">25:20</a>). Zephaniah declares that it shall be rooted up (<a onClick="return mV(\'Zep\',2,4);">2:4</a>), and Zechariah speaks of its consternation at the fall of Tyre (<a onClick="return mV(\'Zec\',9,5,7);">9:5,7</a>).<P>From the Assyrian records we learn that it revolted against Sennacherib and expelled Padi, the governor he had placed over it, and sent him to Hezekiah, at Jerusalem, for safe keeping. Sennacherib marched against it and Ekron called in the aid of the king of Mutsri, formerly supposed to be Egypt but now regarded by some scholars as a district of Northwestern Arabia. Sennacherib raised the siege of Ekron to defeat this army, which he did at Eltekeh, and then returned and took the city by storm and put to death the leaders of the revolt and carried their adherents into captivity. He then compelled Hezekiah to restore Padi, who was once more made governor. This affair led to the famous attack of Sennacherib on Hezekiah and Jerusalem (Rawl., Anc. Mon., II, 159). Ekron is mentioned in 1Macc 10:89 as being given by Alexander Balas to Jonathan Maccabeus, and it appears in the accounts of the first Crusade.<P>Ekronite:<P>An inhabitant of Ekron, used in plural in <a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',13,3);">Jos 13:3</a> and <a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',5,10);">1Sa 5:10</a>.``138';
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isbe[2918]='El``<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=GOD,+NAMES+OF">GOD, NAMES OF</a>`1';
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isbe[2919]='El Elyon`el e-li\'-on`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=GOD,+NAMES+OF">GOD, NAMES OF</a>`1';
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isbe[2920]='El Roi`(<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',16,13);">Ge 16:13</a> margin).`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=GOD,+NAMES+OF">GOD, NAMES OF</a>`1';
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isbe[2921]='El Shaddai`el shad\'-a-i, el shad\'-i.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=GOD,+NAMES+OF">GOD, NAMES OF</a>`1';
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isbe[2922]='El-Beth-El`el-beth\'-el (el beth-\'el, "God of Bethel"; Baithel):<P>By this name Jacob called the scene of his vision at Luz, when he returned from Paddan-aram (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',35,7);">Ge 35:7</a>).``1';
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isbe[2923]='El-Elohe-Israel`el-e-lo\'-he-iz\'-ra-el, el-el\'-o-he-iz\'-ra-el (\'el \'elohe yisra\'el, translated "God, the God of Israel" in the American Revised Version, margin and the King James Version margin):<P>Found only in <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',33,20);">Ge 33:20</a> as the name given to the altar erected at Shechem by Jacob, henceforth, known as Israel, on the parcel of ground purchased by him from the inhabitants of Shechem, his first encampment of length and importance since the return to Palestine from Paddan-aram and the eventful night at Peniel (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',32,30);">Ge 32:30</a>). This unusual combination of names has given occasion for much speculation and for various text emendations. Already the Septuagint sought to meet the difficulty by reading wa-yiqra\' \'el \'elohe yisra\'el, "and he called upon the God of Israel," instead of the wa-yiqra\' lo \'el of Massoretic Text, "and he called it El" etc. Wellhausen, followed by Dillmann, Driver and others, changes "altar" to "pillar," because the Hebrew verb, hitstsibh, is used with mitstsbhah, "pillar," in <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',35,14,20);">Ge 35:14, 20</a>, so making this religious act a parallel to that at Bethel. But Delitzsch, New Commentary on Genesis, properly rejects this purely fanciful change, and understands the compound name as the altar\'s inscription. Dillmann well suggests that "altar" (or "pillar") be supplied, reading thus: "called it the altar of El, the God of Israel." The peculiar phrase is best and most readily understood in its close connection with the struggle at Peniel, recorded in <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',32,\'1-\');">Ge 32</a>. Being victorious in that struggle, Jacob received the new name "Israel"; and to his first altar in Palestine he gave that name of God which appeared in his own new name, further explaining it by the appositive phrase "Elohe-Israel." Thus, his altar was called, or dedicated to, "El, the God of Israel."``109';
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isbe[2924]='El-Paran`el-pa\'-ran.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=PARAN,+EL-PARAN">PARAN</a>`1';
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isbe[2925]='Ela`e\'-la (Ela, 1Esdras 9:27):<P>(1) Same as Elam (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ezr\',10,26);">Ezr 10:26</a>).<P>(2) Father of Shimei (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',4,18);">1Ki 4:18</a>, the King James Version "Elah").`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ELAH+(1)">ELAH</a>`1';
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isbe[2926]='Eladah`el\'-a-da.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ELEADAH">ELEADAH</a>`1';
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isbe[2927]='Elah (1)`e\'-la (\'elah, "oak" or "terebinth"):<P>(1) A "duke" or "sheik" (head of a clan, the Revised Version (British and American) "chief") of Edom (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',36,41);">Ge 36:41</a>).<P>(2) Shimei-ben-Elah, Solomon\'s commissary in Benjamin (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',4,18);">1Ki 4:18</a> the King James Version).<P>(3) A son of Caleb the son of Jephunneh (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',4,15);">1Ch 4:15</a>).<P>(4) Father of Hoshea, last king of Israel (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',15,30);">2Ki 15:30</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',17,1);">17:1</a>).<P>(5) A Benjamite, son of Uzzi, one of the chiefs of the tribes when the country was settled (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',9,8);">1Ch 9:8</a>).<P>(6) King of Israel.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ELAH+2">ELAH 2</a>`1';
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isbe[2928]='Elah (2)`e\'-la.<P>Son of Baasha, fourth king of Israel (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',16,\'6-14\');">1Ki 16:6-14</a>).<P>He reigned two years, 888-887 BC. The statement that he came to the throne in the 26th year of Asa, reigned two years, and died in the 27th year of Asa, illustrates the Hebrew method of synchronizing the reigns of the kings of Israel and Judah (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',15,33);">1Ki 15:33</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',16,8);">16:8</a>). Elah appears to have been a debauchee. While he was drinking himself drunk in the house of Azra, his chamberlain, Zimri, one of his military leaders, conspired against him and murdered him. According to Josephus (VIII, xii, 4) he took advantage of the absence of the army, which was at Gibbethon, to kill Elah. The extirpation of the royal family followed the murder of the king. Baasha\'s dynasty had its origin in a murder and it ended in a murder. The government had no stability. These revolutions illustrate the truth that "they who take the sword shall perish with the sword."``125';
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isbe[2929]='Elah, Vale of`(\'emeq ha-\'elah, "valley of the terebinth"; he koilas Ela; A, tes druos):<P>The scene of the events of <a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',17,2);">1Sa 17:2</a>ff, referred to also in <a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',21,9);">1Sa 21:9</a>. There can be no doubt that this is the Wady ec Cunt ("valley of the tercbinth"), or part of it. This is the southernmost of the great valleys which cut through the Shephelah. Commencing near Hebron, close to Beit Sur, it descends under the name Wady es Sur in a more or less northerly direction until near Beit Nettif where it turns abruptly west and receives the name Wady ec CunT. Here it is joined by the Wady en Najil, coming from the north, and from the east by the Wady el-Jindy, down which descends an ancient road from Bethlehem. Where all these valleys coalesce the Wady ec Cunt expands into a wide and level bottom, half a mile across. On a steep hill to the southern side and a little southeast of the wide expanse is Kh. esh-Shuweikeh, the site of Socoh. That the great events of <a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',17,2);">1Sa 17:2</a>ff took place here there can be no doubt: the Philistines ranged themselves upon the southern hills; the Israelites to the north or northeast. Upon the wide level valley the contest with Goliath occurred. The exact position of Saul\'s forces may be a matter of speculation, but the late Principal Miller of Madras, who made a special study of the locality (Least of All Lands, chapter v), considered that the little valley ascending northeast from Wady ec Cunt to Belt Nettif was probably the actual Vale of Elah and that here the Israelites had their fortifications. His elucidation of the whole story is most convincing.``117';
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isbe[2930]='Elam`e\'-lam (\'elam):<P>(1) A son of Shem (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',10,22);">Ge 10:22</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',1,17);">1Ch 1:17</a>; see <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ELAMITES">ELAMITES</a>).<P>(2) A Benjamite (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',8,24);">1Ch 8:24</a>).<P>(3) A Korahite (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',26,3);">1Ch 26:3</a>).<P>(4) Heads of families in the return (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ezr\',2,7);">Ezr 2:7</a> parallel <a onClick="return mV(\'Neh\',7,12);">Ne 7:12</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Ezr\',2,31);">Ezr 2:31</a> parallel <a onClick="return mV(\'Neh\',7,34);">Ne 7:34</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Ezr\',8,7);">Ezr 8:7</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Ezr\',10,2,26);">10:2, 26</a>).<P>(5) A chief of the people (<a onClick="return mV(\'Neh\',10,14);">Ne 10:14</a>).<P>(6) A priest (<a onClick="return mV(\'Neh\',12,42);">Ne 12:42</a>).``1';
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isbe[2931]='Elam; Elamites`e\'-lam, e\'-lam-its (\'elam; Ailam; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',49,36);">Jer 49:36</a>. Codex Sinaiticus \'the original scribe\' reads Elam)<P>The scene of the events of <a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',17,2);">1Sa 17:2</a>ff, referred to also in <a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',21,9);">1Sa 21:9</a>. There can be no doubt that this is the Wady ec Cunt ("valley of the tercbinth"), or part of it. This is the southernmost of the great valleys which cut through the Shephelah. Commencing near Hebron, close to Beit Sur, it descends under the name Wady es Sur in a more or less northerly direction until near Beit Nettif where it turns abruptly west and receives the name Wady ec CunT. Here it is joined by the Wady en Najil, coming from the north, and from the east by the Wady el-Jindy, down which descends an ancient road from Bethlehem. Where all these valleys coalesce the Wady ec Cunt expands into a wide and level bottom, half a mile across. On a steep hill to the southern side and a little southeast of the wide expanse is Kh. esh-Shuweikeh, the site of Socoh. That the great events of <a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',17,2);">1Sa 17:2</a>ff took place here there can be no doubt: the Philistines ranged themselves upon the southern hills; the Israelites to the north or northeast. Upon the wide level valley the contest with Goliath occurred. The exact position of Saul\'s forces may be a matter of speculation, but the late Principal Miller of Madras, who made a special study of the locality (Least of All Lands, chapter v), considered that the little valley ascending northeast from Wady ec Cunt to Belt Nettif was probably the actual Vale of Elah and that here the Israelites had their fortifications. His elucidation of the whole story is most convincing.<P><b>Contents</b><P>1. Geographical Position and Names<P>2. Surface Configuration<P>3. Mountain Ranges<P>4. Rivers <P>5. Climate<P>6. Vegetation<P>7. Fauna<P>8. The Population<P>9. The Principal Cities<P>10. Apirti and the "Bandit Nations"<P>11. The Languages of Elam<P>12. History<P class="in15">(1) The Earliest Period<P class="in15">(2) Sargon of Agade and His Successors<P class="in15">(3) The Suzerainty of the Kings of Ur<P class="in15">(4) Elam Becomes Predominant 2280 Years BC<P class="in15">(5) The Extension of Elamite Authority Westward<P class="in15">(6) Babylonia Again Supreme<P class="in15">(7) Hurbatila\'s Challenge to Kuri-galzu<P class="in15">(8) Elam Again Supreme<P class="in15">(9) Elam Again Defeated, but Recovers<P class="in15">(10) The Conflict between Elam and Assyria<P class="in15">(11) Sennacherib against Chaldea and Elam<P class="in15">(12) Assyrian Friendship and Elamite Ingratitude<P class="in15">(13) Te-umman and the Elamite Seed-royal; Assyria\'s Triumph<P class="in15">(14) Elamite Ingratitude and Treachery<P class="in15">(15) Elam\'s Further Changes of Rulers<P class="in15">(16) King Tammaritu\'s Treachery<P class="in15">(17) Dominion Passes from Assyria<P class="in15">(18) The Later State of Elam<p>13. Elamite Religion<p>14. Elam\'s Importance; Her Literature<p>15. Art during the 1st and 2nd Prehistoric Periods<p>16. Art in the Archaic Period, That of the Viceroys, and That of the Kings<p>17. Temperament of the Inhabitants of Elam<P><b>LITERATURE</b><P>1. Geographical Position and Names:<P>A well-known tract, partly mountainous, whose western boundary, starting on the northeast side of the Persian Gulf, practically followed the course of the lower Tigris. It was bounded on the north by Media, on the east by Persia and on the west by Babylonia. The Assyro-Babylonians called the tract Elamtu, expressed ideographically by the Sumerian characters for Nimma or Numma, which seems to have been its name in that language. As Numma or Elam apparently means "height," or the like, these names were probably applied to it on account of its mountainous nature. Another name by which it was known in early times was Ashshan, for Anshan or Anzan (Anzhan), one of its ancient cities. The great capital of the tract, however, was Susa (Shushan), whence its Greek name of Susiana, interchanging with Elymais, from the Semitic Elam.<P>2. Surface Configuration:<P>Elam consisted of a plain occupying a depression in the mountains of Iran or Persia. Of this the smaller part<72>which, however, was also the most ancient historically<6C>lay between the Pusht-e-Kuh on the west, the Lur mountains on the North, the Bakhtiari heights to the east and southeast, and the hills of Ahwaz to the south. The larger plain has as its northern boundary these same Ahwaz hills, and reaches to the sea on the south.<P>3. Mountain Ranges:<P>The Pusht-e-Kuh mountains are a series of very high parallel ranges described as "a veritable wall" between Mesopotamia and the elevated depression of the Kerkha. Its principal peak is in the Kebir-Kuh (2,500 meters = 8,200 ft.)<29>a difficult range of surprising regularity. The valleys on the southwest slope belong properly to Babylonia, and could be invaded on that side with ease, but northeast of the Kebir-Kuh the country is well protected not only against Mesopotamia, on the west, but also against Persia on the east. The nomad Lurs of the present day are practically independent of Persia. The mountain ranges of Luristan increase in height as one approaches the Persian plain, the loftiest summits of the principal range attaining a height of 5,000 meters (= 16,400 ft.).<P>4. Rivers:<P>From these mountain ranges descend large rivers which flow through Elam to the sea. The Kerkha (Gamas-ab) rises in the Persian plain near Nehavend, and is practically a torrent until it reaches Susa, below which it becomes less rapid, and loses itself in the Hawizeh marshes. The Ab-e-Diz, a river with a greater volume of water, is formed by the uniting of two streams above Dizful. It is so violent that it carries down boulders and even tree-trunks from the mountains, and after a winding course joins the Karun at Kut-e-Bende-Kir. The Belad-Rud, between the Ab-e-Diz and the Kerkha, rises in the mountains of Luristan, and varies greatly as to its volume, being sometimes a mere brook, and at others a large river. The Karun, with which a number of small streams unite, rises in the Bakhtiari mountains. After receiving the Ab-e-Diz and the Belad-Rud at Kut-e-Bende-Kir, it becomes an important waterway, navigable as far as Shuster. This is identified with the Biblical Ulai (Assyrian Ulaa, classical Eulaeus). In ancient times emptying itself into the Persian Gulf, which in past centuries extended much farther inland than now, it at present joins the Shattel-Arab at Mohammerah.<P>5. Climate:<P>The climate is a variable one. Between November 1 and 15 the rains begin, with southeast and south winds, and the mountains are covered with snow. In January and February there are violent storms, and the night brings 8 degrees or 10 degrees of frost. Spring begins at the end of February, and vegetation advances so rapidly that harvest takes place about the end of April. The wind then turns south and southwest, bringing with it a heat rising sometimes to 140 degree F., destroying all the verdure of the country. Notwithstanding the rigors of the climate, however, it was in ancient times a well-populated district, and exceedingly fruitful, as now. That the district of Arabistan is poor and barren is due to the carelessness and improvidence of the people, who, like the people of the Turkish province of Bagdad, have neglected the ancient irrigation canals which fertilized the land.<P>6. Vegetation:<P>The vegetation of Susiana is said not to be very varied. On the river banks are to be found willows, tamarisks and many kinds of acacias. Apparently there are no forests<74>the sacred groves referred to by Assur-bani-apli are thought by De Morgan to have been artificial plantations. Oranges and lemons, which are at present cultivated there, are late importations. The date palm has been brought from the banks of the Shatt-el-Arab, and the pomegranate and other fruit trees from the Iranian plain. Wheat and barley, sown in October and November, are harvested in April. Sorghum remains in the ground all through the dry season, and is watered artificially until October, and cut in November. Castor beans, indigo, lentils, haricots, etc., are less cultivated.<P>7. Fauna:<P>The fauna is said at present to be less numerous than formerly. It contains species both of central Asia, Europe, and, to a certain extent, Africa. The elephant, wild ass, wild ox and ostrich are no longer to be found on the Chaldeo-Elamite plain, but a few examples of the lion still exist there. Bears, panthers, wild boars, wolves, wild cats, foxes, jackals, and several species of wild dogs, however, still exist. Numbers of porcupines inhabit the brushwood by the rivers and marshes. Among the birds which do not leave the country are the eagle, vulture, falcon, raven, francolin, martin, sparrow, tomtit, wagtail, etc. The winter birds of passage are the pelican, stork, crane, cormorant, sea gull, many species of wild duck, the wild goose, bustard, woodcock, snipe, pigeon, turtledove, and numerous brilliantly colored waders. The water-courses are full of fish, among them being the barbel, silurus, carp (sometimes of great size), and gurnards similar to those of the Nile. Some of the rivers being salt, sea fish are also to be found, and it is not rare to see sharks at Shuster, and eels in the lower Karun.<P>8. The Population:<P>The population is naturally not homogeneous. Arab tribes, who are in reality Semites, occupy the plains, while Iranians inhabit the cities and dwell at the mountain bases. According to De Morgan, the original population was mainly negritic, and has mingled with the Arab stock to such an extent that mulattoes among them are not rare. He regards this type as being represented among the soldiers as well as among the people conquered by Naram-Sin about 3000 BC. Nevertheless pure Semites had settled in the country at a very early date, and it is probably on account of this that Elam is called (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',10,22);">Ge 10:22</a>) a son of Shem<65>indeed, the many Sere inscriptions found by the French explorers at Susa show how strong their influence was. It was to all appearance during the 2nd millennium BC that certain Kassites overran West Mesopotamia, and settled in the northern part of Elam, which was thereafter called by the Assyrians mat Kassi, "the land of the Cosseans." As these people seem to have spoken an Aryan language, there was apparently no really new race introduced in consequence of their invasion.<P>9. The Principal Cities:<P>The two principal cities were Susa or Shushan, called Susun in the native texts, and regarded as the old capital, situated on the Ulai (Karkha); and Anzan (Ashshan, Anshan), more to the southwest. This latter was the capital of Cyrus the Great and his immediate predecessors, the tract having been conquered apparently by Sispis (Teispes), his ancestor, at the end of the 6th century BC. Susa, an important commercial center in the 3rd millennium BC, became again one of the three capitals of the Pets empire during the rule of the Achemenians.<P>10. Apirti and the "Bandit Nations":<P>From the inscriptions of Mal-Amir, to the east, we learn that that was the place of another kingdom called Apirti, the land of the Apharsites of <a onClick="return mV(\'Ezr\',4,9);">Ezr 4:9</a>. In the 2nd (so-called Median or Scythian) version of the late Persian inscriptions this name is given as Hapirti, Halpirti, and Haltupirti, and appears as the equivalent of the Babylonian Elammat (Elamtu) or Elam without the nominative ending. In the Persian version this appears as (H)uwaja or (H)uwazha, whence the modern Huz or Khuzistan. This implies that the kings of Apirti at one time held dominion over Susa, and perhaps the whole of Elam. Strabo (xi.13,1,6), quoting Nearchus, speaks of "four bandit nations" who occupied the mountains east of the Euphrates<65>the Amardians or Mardians on the Persian border, the Uxians, and Elymeans on the borders of Persia and Susa, and the Cosseans (Kassites) by the Medes. The Amardians would seem to have been the Apirti (Hapirti), the Uxians were probably from (H)uwaja, while the Elymeans (compare 1Macc 6:1) were the Elamites. Among the tribes who made the history of the country, therefore, were probably the Uxians, who seem not to be mentioned in the early inscriptions.<P>11. The Languages of Elam:<P>The dialects of Susa, the second Achemenian VSS, and of Apirti, differ but slightly from each other. They are variants of an agglutinative tongue, and are apparently not related to any other known language. The statement in <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',10,22);">Ge 10:22</a>, therefore, applies only to the Semitic section of the population, as it is unlikely that the people speaking Apirtian could be described as "sons of Shem."<P>12. History:<P>(1) The Earliest Period.<P>Beginning with the semi-mythical period, we have the story of the fight of the Babylonian hero Gilgames with the Elamite tyrant Humbaba, who was defeated by the hero and his helper Enki-du, and beheaded. The earliest really historical reference to the Elamites as the foes of Babylonia, however, is apparently that contained in a letter from the priest Lu-enna to the priest En-e-tarzi announcing that the Elamites had invaded Lagas and carried off considerable booty. The writer, however, had attacked the Elamites, and taken plunder from them in his turn. As there seems to be a reference to division of spoil, this is an excellent parallel to the Elamite expedition, made in alliance with the Babylonians, against the cities of the plain (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',14,\'1-\');">Ge 14</a>).<P>(2) Sargon of Agade and His Successors.<P>Sargon of Agade, early in his reign, attacked the Elamites, but apparently Elam only fell under the dominion of the Babylonians during the time of Naram-Sin, his son, who is seemingly shown leading his troops in that region on the splendid stele bearing his name that was found at Susa. Elam apparently regained its independence, however, during the time of Uruwus king of Kis, who invaded the country, and brought back considerable spoil. One of the chiefs of Susa about this time was Simbi-ishak. Chaldean domination, however, did not last long, for Dungi, king of Ur of the Chaldees, about 2500 BC, invaded the country, accompanied by his vassal Gudea, viceroy of Lagas. Dungi has left evidences of his conquests in the buildings which he erected at Susa, but the principal buildings of this period were constructed by Ba-sa-Susinak, son of Simbi-ishak, viceroy of Susa and potentate in Elam. He built a temple to the god Sugu, reservoirs, the gate of Susinak, and dug the Sidur canal. He was evidently one of the great rulers of the land.<P>(3) The Suzerainty of the Kings of Ur.<P>Somewhat later came Idadu I, his son Kal-Ruhuratir, and his grandson Idadu II, who in turn occupied the throne during the time of Bur-Sin, king of Ur. Elam was at this time still under Babylonian suzerainty, which continued under his successor, Gimil-Sin, who also built at Susa, his vassal being Ebarti-kin-Daddu, viceroy of Susa. Gimil-Sin was succeeded by his son Ibi-Sin as overlord in Elam, who invaded and devastated the country, probably to suppress a a revolt. There was apparently no ill-will between the two nations, however, for the viceroy of Susa is said to have married a daughter of Ibi-Sin. Another and possibly later viceroy seems to have married Mekubi, daughter of Billama, viceroy of Asnunnak, who, as Elamite princess, erected buildings at Susa.<P>(4) Elam Becomes Predominant 2280 Years BC.<P>It was probably shortly after this that Kudur-Nahhunte threw off the Semitic yoke, and, invading Babylonia, brought back much spoil to Elam. The date indicated for this ruler by the inscriptions of Assurbani-apli is 2280 BC. The positions of the rulers of Elam and Babylonia were now changed, and the kings of Babylon had to acknowledge Elamite suzerainty. As Elamite and Babylonian sovereign, Kudur-Nahhunte entrusted Susa to a feudatory ruler, and among the viceroys who governed Elam may be mentioned Sirukdu\', who constructed at Susa, and Temti-Agun, his sister\'s son, who built in that city the temple to Isme-karab, "for the health of Kutir-Nahhunte and his family." After passing to other rulers, the government of Susa fell to Ebari, father of Silhaha, during whose reign Simti-Silhak ruled in Babylonia. Nur-Addi and Rim-Anum, kings of Larsa (Elassar), were his vassals.<P>(5) The Extension of Elamite Authority Westward.<P>Attapaksu (or Attahusu), Silhaha\'s sister\'s son, then became "shepherd of Susa." Among the temples which he built was one dedicated to the goddess Narute, and he erected a bridge near his residence. Kudur-mabuk, son of Simti-Silhak, was at this time adda ("father," probably meaning protector) of Emutbalu and the West<73>Amurru, the land of the Amorites, whither marched Chedorlaomer and Amraphel, with their allies, in the time of Abraham (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',14,\'1-\');">Ge 14</a>). Kudur-mabuk of Larsa was succeeded by his son Eri-Aku (probably the Iri-Agun of Larsa of the Elamite texts), and if he be really, as seems probable, the Arioch of <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',14,1,9);">Ge 14:1, 9</a>, then this is also the period when Chedorlaomer ruled in Elam. The strange thing, however, is, that the name of this last does not occur in any recognizable form, unless it be the Kudurlahgumal of certain half-legendary inscriptions (see <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=CHEDORLAOMER">CHEDORLAOMER</a>). The Elamite line in Larsa was continued after the death of Eri-Aku by Rim-Sin, his brother, who succeeded him.<P>(6) Babylonia Again Supreme.<P>What the history of Elam during this period was remains to be discovered, but Hammurabi, who is identified with the Amraphel of <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',14,1,9);">Ge 14:1, 9</a>, seems to have invaded the country in his 30th year. In his 31st he defeated Rim-Sin of Larsa, following this up, in his 32nd, by overthrowing the army of Asnunnak. All these successes in Elam and its dependencies probably made the kingdom of Babylon supreme in the land. But more details bearing upon this period are needed. It is thought probable that the Elamite king Sadi(?) or Taki (?) came into conflict with, and was defeated by, Ammi-caduga, the 4th in descent from Hammurabi, who reigned about 1890 BC. Apparently the Elamite ruler had tried to regain his independence, but failed.<P>(7) Hurbatila\'s Challenge to Kuri-galzu.<P>Omitting the names of rulers concerning whom but little or nothing is known, we come to the reign of Untas-Gal, patron of the articles. Numerous temples were built by him, and sanctuaries at Susa dedicated. He has left a magnificent bronze statue representing his queen Napir-Asu. He seems to have been overthrown by Untahas-Gal, of a more legitimate line, who was likewise a builder of temples. After the apparently short reign of Kidin-Hutran came that of Hurpatila (Hurbatila), who, desiring to throw off the Babylonian yoke, challenged Kuri-galzu, king of Babylon, to battle at Dur-Dungi. The challenge was accepted, with disastrous results, for Hurbatila was captured by the Babylonian king at the place named. This, however, did not put an end to the strife, and in the end Kidin-Hutrudas was victorious over Belnadin-sum, king of Babylon, about 1180 BC.<P>(8) Elam Again Supreme.<P>Later came the military exploits of Sutruk-Nahhunte, who invaded Babylonia, slew the king Zagaga-sum-iddina, and helped by his son Kutir-Nahhunte, destroyed Sippar, and took away the stele of Naram-Sin, the code of Hammurabi, and several other monuments, which were carefully preserved at Susa. He also defeated the king of Asnunnak. It is this collection of spoils which has contributed to make the success of the French excavations at Susa what it is.<P>(9) Elam Again Defeated, but Recovers.<P>The war between Babylonia and Elam recorded for the reign of Nebuchadrezzar I (circa 1020 BC) probably took place, according to Scheil, during the reign of Silbina-hamru-Laqamar. The Elamite king was defeated on the banks of the Ulai, Elam was ravaged, and much spoil taken. The principality called Namar was detached from Susian territory and reunited to the domain of Babylonia. Apparently the Elamites now turned their attention to regaining their military prestige, the result being that an Elamite king occupied the Babylonian throne from 939 to 934 BC. The history of this period has still to be discovered, but the Babylonians apparently soon shook off the Elamite yoke. It is about this time, however, that another power<65>Assyria<69>appeared on the scene, and took the field<6C>not only against Babylon, but also on the borders of Elam. An Elamite contemporary of Nabonassar of Babylon was Humbanigas, 742 BC.<P>(10) The Conflict between Elam and Assyria.<P>At this time, however, the Assyrians became dominant in Babylonia (see <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=TIGLATH-PILESER">TIGLATH-PILESER</a> and <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=SHALMANESER">SHALMANESER</a>), but it was probably not until the reign of Sargon of Assyria (see <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=SARGON">SARGON</a>) that Elam came into conflict with Assyria. Merodach-baladan, a pretender to the throne of Babylon, made common cause with Humbanigas, who fought with the Assyrian army at Der. Naturally the Assyrians claim the victory, but the Babylonians say that they were defeated. After the death of Humbanigas, his successor, Sutur-Nahhundi or Ishtar-hundu (Babylonian), still befriended Merodach-baladan, and advanced to his help. Sargon first attacked the Chaldeans and defeated them at Dur-Athara, and, entering Elam, stormed and captured the cities of the land. The Elamite king took refuge in the mountains, and Merodach-baladan had to resist the Assyrians unaided.<P>(11) Sennacherib against Chaldea and Elam.<P>As Sargon had his attention fully occupied elsewhere, he made no attempt to follow up his success, and it seems not to have been until the reign of Sennacherib that any serious invasion of the country on the part of the Assyrians was made. In 697 BC that king marched again against Merodach-baladan, who had taken refuge at Nagitu and other places on the Elamite side of then elongated Persian Gulf. Here the Chaldeans, with their Elamite allies, were defeated, and the Elamite cities plundered and destroyed. Hallusu, king of Elam, on the retirement of the Assyrian troops, invaded Babylonia as being part of the territories of the Assyrian king, and having captured Assur-nadin-sum, Sennacherib\'s son, who had ruled in Babylon 6 years, carried him off to Elam, setting Nergal-usezib on the throne of Babylonia. On the arrival of the Assyrian avenging host in Baby1onia, Nergal-usezib fled to Elam, but was captured near Niffer. The Elamites were evidently very dissatisfied with their king<6E>possibly owing to his policy<63>and killed him in a revolt after a reign of six years. This action on the part of the Elamites, however, did not save the people from Assyrian vengeance, for Sennacherib invaded and ravaged the country from Ras to Bit-Burnaki. Apparently the Elamites had expected their new ruler, Kudurru (Kudur-Nahhunte), to save them from the reprisals of the Assyrians, but as he had failed to do this, he, in his turn, was deposed and killed after a reign of 10 months. The new king of Elam was Umman-Menanu, who espoused the cause of Musezib-Marduk, the new king of Babylon, and gathering a force of Babylonians and Elamites at Halule, fought a battle there, in which the Babylonians record success for the allies. Sennacherib, however, himself claims the victory, and describes with great wealth of detail the horrors of the fight. Next year (689 BC) Sennacherib marched into Babylonia to complete the work, and Musezib-Marduk, having been captured, was sent prisoner to Assyria. Umman-Menanu died at the end of the year, after a 4 years\' reign, and was succeeded by Humba-haldasu I (689-682 BC), of whom nothing is known. In 682 BC Humba-haldasu II mounted the throne. The death of Sennacherib and the troubles attending the accession of Esarhaddon encouraged Nabuzer-napisti-Itsir, son of Merodach-baladan, again to raise the standard of revolt. Defeat was the result, and he fled to Elam, there to be captured by Humba-haldasu and put to death.<P>(12) Assyrian Friendship and Elamite Ingratitude.<P>Friendship with Assyria was a complete reversal of Elamite policy, and to all appearance peace, though probably unpopular, persisted between the two countries for several years. Humba-haldasu\'s two brothers revolted against him and assassinated him, and Urtaku, one of the murderers, took the Elamite throne. Not daring to be openly hostile to Assyria, however, he sent his brother Te-umman to intrigue in Chaldea in favor of a man named Nabuusallim, but the Chaldean chiefs answered that Na\'id-Marduk, their lord, lived, and they were the servants of the king of Assyria. Also, during a famine in Elam, certain Elamite tribes migrated into Assyria to escape the scarcity, and were kindly treated by Assur-bani-apli, who had succeeded his father on the Assyrian throne. Notwithstanding this, however, Urtaku invaded Babylonia as ally of certain Chaldean tribes. Overtaken by the Assyrian army, he fought with them near his own border, but was defeated and fled. He died prematurely (by his own hand) the same year, and was succeeded by his brother Te-umman (Tepti-Humban).<P>(13) Te-umman and the Elamite Seed-royal; Assyria\'s Triumph.<P>This king, who is described by Assur-bani-apli as being in the likeness of an evil spirit, immediately set to work to secure the death of all the sons of Urtaku and Umman-aldase (Humba-Haldasu II), his brother; and these princes, five in number, with 60 of the royal seed of Elam, fled and sought refuge with the Assyrian king. Te-umman immediately sent two messengers to Assur-bani-apli demanding the surrender of the fugitives. This was refused, and war broke out between the two countries immediately after. The Assyrians came up with the Elamites at Der, but Te-umman feared to join issue there, and retreating, took up a strong position near his capital, Susa, with his front protected by the river Ulai. Defections from his army now so weakened the forces of Te-umman that he endeavored to treat with Assur-bani-apli, who naturally refused to listen to terms, and ordered his troops to attack. The defeat of the Elamites was a foregone conclusion, and Te-umman perished, with his son, in the thick of the battle, as is dramatically depicted by the sculptors of Assur-bani-apli in the bas-reliefs which adorned the walls of his palace. An Assyrian general was now sent to Susa with Umman-igas, the prince chosen to succeed Te-umman, and he was proclaimed while the bodies of the fallen Elamites covered the battlefield, and the waters of the Ulai carried others down to the place of its outflow. Tammaritu, the new king\'s youngest brother, was at the same time made king of Hidalu, in the mountain region. In the triumphal procession at Nineveh which took place on the Assyrian army\'s return, the head of Te-umman and his son Tamritu figured, the former hanging from the neck of Dunanu, king of Gambulu, and the latter from the neck of Samgunu, Dunanu\'s brother.<P>(14) Elamite Ingratitude and Treachery.<P>For a time there was peace in Elam, but soon the discontent of Samas-sum-ukin, king of Babylon, Assur-bani-apli\'s brother, sought to break it. Urged by him, Umman-igas forgot the benefits which he had received at the hands of Assur-bani-apli, and sent an army into Babylonia under the command of Undasi, son of Te-umman, telling him to avenge upon Assyria the killing of his father. Notwithstanding the great strength of the allied army, they did not succeed in making headway against the Assyrians. Tammaritu, nephew of Umman-igas, after the defeat of the Elamite forces in Chaldea, revolted against him, and having defeated him, cut off his head, and took the crown. Samas-sum-ukin immediately turned his attention to the new ruler, and induced him by fresh presents to come likewise to his aid. Tammaritu therefore marched at the head of an army into Babylonia, but in his absence Indabigas, one of his servants, headed a revolt against him, and proclaimed himself king in Susa. In the battle which ensued between the two pretenders, Tammaritu was defeated, and fled to the seacoast with a part of the Elamite royal family. He ultimately embarked in a ship on the Persian Gulf with the intention of escaping, but was wrecked, and gave himself up to an Assyrian officer, who sent him to Assyria.<P>(15) Elam\'s Further Changes of Rulers.<P>Indabigas, the new Elamite king, now sent an embassy to make peace with Assur-bani-apli, who at once demanded the surrender of Nabu-bel-sumati, son of Merodach-baladan, and the Assyrians whom he had enticed and taken with him. Before this demand could reach Indabigas, however, his people had revolted against him and put him to death, and Umman-aldasu, son of Attametu, sat on the throne, after defeating Indabigas on the banks of the Huthut. The same demand was made to Ummanaldasu as had been made to Indabigas, but Nabubel-sumati, not wishing to fall into the hands of the Assyrians, called on his armor-bearer to dispatch him, and the two ran each other through with their swords.<P>(16) King Tammaritu\'s Treachery.<P>Nevertheless Assur-bani-apli decided to replace Tammaritu, the former Elamite king, on the throne, and to this end invaded Elam. The Assyrians were, as usual, successful, and on learning this, Umman-aldas fled to the mountains. Entering Susa, Tammaritu was once more proclaimed king of Elam, he, in return, promising to regard Assur-bani-apli as his lord, and to pay tribute. No sooner had the Assyrian army departed, than the new king of Elam began to plot against the power which had raised him. To all appearance his intentions to revolt were reported to the Assyrian king, who at once sent an army and plundered the country, and Tammaritu again fell into Assur-bani-apli\'s hands. Umman-aldas now returned and resumed the government. Unwilling to regard his former efforts as fruitless, the Assyrian king decided to finally subdue the land, and to this end invaded it, the pretext being that the Elamites refused to deliver up the image of the goddess Nana, which had been carried off from Erech 1,635 years before, in the time of Kudur-Nahhunte (see (4) above). The two armies faced each other on the banks of the Itite, and after an attack in which the Assyrians were at a disadvantage, the Elamites gave way, and Umman-aldas fled to the mountains. According to the Assyrian king\'s record, an enormous booty was taken, including many sacred and ancient royal statues preserved at Susa. The image of Nana was restored to its shrine at Erech with great rejoicing. In the triumphal celebrations at Nineveh, Tammaritu was one of the captive kings who drew the Assyrian king\'s chariot to the temple of Ishtar, when he rendered the goddess thanks for his victories.<P>(17) Dominion Passes from Assyria.<P>To all appearance Elam now became a province of the Assyrian empire, though not for long, as this collapsed in the year 606 BC, and the center of government was shifted to Babylon, under Nabopolassar, who became its ruler. Nebuchadrezzar (604), Evil-Merodach (561), Neriglissar (559), and Nabonidus (555-538 BC), were successively masters of Elam. The mention of the kings of Elam in <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',25,25);">Jer 25:25</a>, however, suggests that the old states of the country had practically resumed their independence; though 49:35-39 prophesies the dismemberment of the country, and the destruction of its king and princes. This is thought to refer to the annexation of the country by Teispes, and its passing, through his line<6E>Cyrus, Cambyses, and Cyrus the Great, who were all kings of Anzan<61>to Darius Hystaspis. In <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',21,2);">Isa 21:2</a> it is apparently the later Cyrus who is referred to when Elam, with Media, is called upon "to go up" to the siege of Babylon.<P>(18) The Later State of Elam.<P>After Cyrus, the history of Elam was that of Persia, of which it henceforth formed a part. In all probability, however, the Elamites were as warlike and as intractable as ever. During the reign of the little-known Kharacenian king, Aspasine, they made incursions into Babylonia, one of the opponents of this king\'s generals being Pittit, "the enemy, the Elamite"<22>a phrase of old standing, apparently. Elam, to its whole extent, was smitten with the sword, and Pittit (was slain or captured). One of the cities which they attacked was Apameia, probably that on the Sellas river. <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',2,9);">Ac 2:9</a> implies that the old language of Elam was still in use, and the Elamites were still recognized as a nationality, as late as the 1st century of our era.<P>13. Elamite Religion:<P>Owing to the many Semites in Elam, and the nearness of the Babylonian states, Babylonian deities<65>Anu and Anatu, Enlil and Ninlil, Merodach and Zer-panitu, Samas and Aa, Tammuz and Ishtar, Ninip, Nergal, Hadad or Rimmon, etc.<2E>were largely worshipped (see <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=BABEL,+BABYLON">BABEL, BABYLON</a>). The chief deity of the non-Semitic pantheon seems to have been Insusinak, the patron-deity of Susa, identified with Ninip, the son of Enlil, by the Babylonians, who guote also other names applied to him<69>Lahuratil Simes, Adaene, Susinak, and Dagbak. Merodach seems to have been represented by the Sumerian character Gal, "great," and Zer-panitu was apparently called Nin-sis in Elam. Ishtar was known as Usan. Lagamar, Laqamar, or Lagamal, was apparently identified with the Babylonian Lagamal, one of the gods of Dailem near Babylon<6F>his name is generally regarded as forming part of the name <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=CHEDORLAOMER">CHEDORLAOMER</a> (which see). Nahhunte, Na\'hunte, or (Babylonian) Nan-hundi was the Babylonian sun-god Samas; Kunzibami was the W. Semitic Hadad, also known by his Mitannian (Hittite) name of Tesup. Humban, Human, or Umman (Assyrian), "the god of gods," "the king," was possibly regarded as the Babylonian Merodach. The currency of Babylonian myths in Elam is suggested by the name of the goddess Belala, possibly the Babylonian Belili, sister of Tammuz. The word for "god" in Elamite was nap, explained by the Babylonians as one of the names of Enlil, implying that the Elamites regarded him as "the god" by divine right. Of their deities, six (one of them being Lagamar) were worshipped only by Elamite kings. Elam had temples and temple-towers similar to those in Babylonia, as well as sacred groves, wherein no stranger penetrated. (See <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ERE">ERE</a>, under the word "Elamites.")<P>14. Elam\'s Importance; Her Literature:<P>The rediscovery of the history of Elam is one of the most noteworthy things of modern research. It has revealed to us the wonderful development which that kingdom had made at an exceedingly early date, and shows that it was politically just as important as the Babylonian states 4,000 years BC, though probably hardly so advanced in art and literature. Nevertheless, the country had adopted the cuneiform method of writing, and possessed also another script, seemingly of more ancient date. As both Semitic Babylonian and Susian (Anzanite) were spoken in the country, numerous documents in both languages have been found, mostly historical, or of the nature of dedications, some of which are inscribed on objects presented to temples. There are also a number of archaic tablets of the nature of accounts, written in a peculiar cuneiform character. The cylinder-seals are either inscribed with dedications, or with the name of the owner, his father, and the god whom he worshipped, as in Babylonia. Of other literature there are but mere traces<65>an exorcism against mosquitos shows the desire of the people to rid themselves of the discomforts of this life. Contracts testify to the existence of laws, but the laws themselves have yet to be discovered. The stele of Hammurabi, which was found at Susa, did not belong to Elamitic literature, but to that of Babylonia.<P>15. Art during the 1st and 2nd Prehistoric Periods:<P>Elamite art during the first period was naturally rude, and it is doubtful whether metals were then used, as no traces of them were found. There were also no inscribed monuments. The pottery, however, was of extreme delicacy, and very elegant. The second period is described as being less artistic than the first. The pottery is more ordinary, and also more roughly made, though better ware also exists. Painted ornamentation is found. Vessels of white or pink limestone, some of them very large, occur, but alabaster is exceedingly rare. There is no indication of writing at this period, but rudely engraved seals, with animal forms, are found. The buildings were of crude brick or piled-up earth, though baked brick was sometimes used. A change seems to have taken place in the conditions of life at the end of this period, implying invasion by a more civilized race.<P>16. Art in the Archaic Period, That of Viceroys, and That of the Kings:<P>The indications of invasion during the second prehistoric period are confirmed, according to M. Jequier, by what is found in the layer of the archaic period, which succeeded it. This is accentuated by the numerous inscribed clay tablets, some of the which have impressions of quite remarkable cylinder-seals. The pottery is scanty and not characteristic, but the working of alabaster into vases had developed considerably, and some of the smaller forms (ointment or scent-bottles) are good and varied. Some have the form of the duck, the wild boar, and other animals. During the period of the issake or viceroys, fine sculptures in low relief occur<75>the scorpion-man and the sacred tree, military prisoners with their guard, siegeoperations and the dead on the battlefield; and as examples of work in the round, ivory and alabaster statuettes. Later on, during the time of the kings of Elam and Susa, the objects of art increase in number, though large objects in the round are rare. Noteworthy are the statuettes and statues in bronze, the former being very numerous. The largest production of this kind is the almost lifesize statue of queen Napir-Asu, consort of Untas-Gal, which, however, is unfortunately headless. It is a remarkable piece of work, and has great artistic merit.<P>17. Temperament of the Inhabitants of Elam:<P>In all probability Elam was much hindered in her material and intellectual development by the intractable and warlike nature of her people<6C>indeed, the history of the country, as far as it is known, is a record of strife and conflict, and the temperament indicated by the ancient records seems to have been inherited by the wild tribes which occupy the more inaccessible districts. What conduced to quarrels and conflicts in ancient times was the law of succession, for the Elamite kings were not generally succeeded by their eldest sons, but by their brothers (see <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ELLASAR">ELLASAR</a>). The inhabitants of the towns at the present time in all probability do not differ in any essential respect from those of Persia in general, and among them there is probably no great amount of ancient Elamite blood, though the Elamite type is met with, and probably occurs, in consequence of ancient mingling, in various parts of modern Persia.<P>LITERATURE.<P>For the most complete account of the discoveries in Elam, see Memoires de la delegation en Perse, Iff, Mission scientifique en Perse, Iff, and Histoire et travaux de la delegation en Perse, all under the editorship of J. de Morgan, and written by De Morgan, V. Scheil, G. Lampre, G. Jequier, etc.; also W. K. Loftus, Chaldea and Susiana, 1857.``136';
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isbe[2932]='Elasa`el\'-a-sa, ele-a\'sa (Alasa; the King James Version Eleasa):<P>The place where Judas pitched his camp before the battle in which he was overwhelmed and slain (1Macc 9:5).<P>It probably corresponds to the modern Khirbet il\'asa, between the two Beth-horons.``1';
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isbe[2933]='Elasah`el\'-a-sa (\'el\'asah, "God has made"):<P>(1) An Israelite who had married a foreign wife (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ezr\',10,22);">Ezr 10:22</a>).<P>(2) A son of Shaphan, by whom, with Gemariah, King Zedekiah sent a message to Babylon (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',29,3);">Jer 29:3</a>).`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ELEASAH">ELEASAH</a>`1';
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isbe[2934]='Elath; Eloth`e\'-lath, or e\'-loth (\'eloth, \'elath; Ailon (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',2,8);">De 2:8</a>), Ailath (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',16,6);">2Ki 16:6</a>)):<P>A seaport on the Red Sea in the territory of Edom. It is named along with Ezion-geber in the account of Israel\'s journey round the land of Edom (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',2,8);">De 2:8</a>). It appears as Ailath, and Alion in the Septuagint, and in Josephus as Ilanis (Ant., VIII, vi, 4), while Eusebius (Onomasticon) has Aila. From this we may gather that the Aramaic Ilan or Ilana was in use as well as the Hebrew \'elath or \'eloth. The name, "grove," was doubtless derived from the presence of certain sacred trees. It may be identical with El-paran of <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',14,6);">Ge 14:6</a>, and Elah of <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',36,41);">Ge 36:41</a>. When David conquered Edom, Elath passed into the hands of Israel (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',8,14);">2Sa 8:14</a>). It was a position of great importance in connection with the trade with Southern Arabia. Here the merchant fleets of Solomon and Jehoshaphat were fitted out, and hence, they sailed (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',9,26);">1Ki 9:26</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',8,17);">2Ch 8:17</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',22,48);">1Ki 22:48</a>).<P>In the reign of Jehoram, son of Jehoshaphat, Edom shook off the hand of Judah (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',8,20);">2Ki 8:20</a>), but under Amaziah and Uzziah it was again subdued (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',14,7,10,22);">2Ki 14:7, 10, 22</a>). Finally it was taken from Ahaz by Rezin, king of Syria. The Jews were driven out and the Syrians (Edomites?) took permanent possession (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',16,6);">2Ki 16:6</a>). It is identical with the modern \'Aqaba, at the head of the gulf of that name.``54';
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isbe[2935]='Elberith`el-be\'-rith (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',9,46);">Jud 9:46</a>).`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=BAAL+BERITH">BAAL-BERITH</a>`1';
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isbe[2936]='Elcia`el\'-shi-a, the Revised Version (British and American) <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ELKIAH">ELKIAH</a> (which see).``1';
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isbe[2937]='Eldaah`el-da\'-a (\'elda\'ah, "God has called"?): A son of Midian (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',25,4);">Ge 25:4</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',1,33);">1Ch 1:33</a>).``1';
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isbe[2938]='Eldad`el\'-dad (\'eldadh, "God has loved"):<P>One of the 70 elders chosen by Moses at the command of Yahweh to share "the burden of the people" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',11,\'16-25\');">Nu 11:16-25</a>). Eldad and his companion Medad were not present with the rest at the tent of meeting, yet the Spirit rested also upon them and they prophesied in the camp (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',11,\'26-29\');">Nu 11:26-29</a>).``1';
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isbe[2939]='Eldad And Modad, Book of`el\'-dad, mo\'-dad:<P>In the Septuagint they are called Eldad and Modad. In the King James Version the names are given as Eldad and Medad; meaning "God has loved" ("God loves") and "object of love" (?).<P>They were two of the seventy elders chosen by Moses (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',11,26);">Nu 11:26</a>), and while the others obeyed the summons and went to the tabernacle, these two remained in the camp and prophesied (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',11,26);">Nu 11:26</a>). The nature of their prophecy is not recorded, and this naturally became a good subject for the play of the imagination. It furnished the basis for a lost work which was quoted by Hermas (Vis 2 3): "The Lord is near to them who return unto him, as it is written in Eldad and Modad, who prophesied to the people in the wilderness." The Palestine Targums also filled in the subject of the prophecy of Eldad and Modad, and, as they have it, it related to the coming of Gog and Magog against Israel at the end of the days. One of the Targums has the expression, "The Lord is near to them that are in the hour of tribulation." The authors of the Targums were either dependent upon that work or upon a similar tradition; and the former of these views is the more probable. Lightfoot and Holtzman think the lengthy quotation in 1 Clem 23 and 2 Clem 11 is from the Book of Eldad and Modad. The work is found in the Stichometry of Nicephorus and consists of 400 stichoi, which would make it about twice the length of the Cant.``62';
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isbe[2940]='Elder``<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ELDER+IN+THE+NEW+TESTAMENT">ELDER IN THE NEW TESTAMENT</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ELDER+IN+THE+OLD+TESTAMENT">ELDER IN THE OLD TESTAMENT</a>`1';
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isbe[2941]='Elder in the New Testament`(presbuteros):<P>(1) The word is used adjectivally to denote seniority (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',15,25);">Lu 15:25</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ti\',5,2);">1Ti 5:2</a>).<P>(2) Referring to the Jewish elders of the synagogue, usually associated with the scribes and Pharisees, and New Testament passages cited in the previous article.<P>(3) It denotes certain persons appointed to hold office in the Christian church, and to exercise spiritual oversight over the flock entrusted to them. From the references in <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',14,23);">Ac 14:23</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',20,17);">20:17</a> it may be inferred that the churches generally had elders appointed over them. That "elders" and "bishops" were in apostolic and sub-apostolic times the same, is now almost universally admitted; in all New Testament references their functions are identical. The most probable explanation of the difference of names is that "elder" refers mainly to the person, and "bishop" to the office; the name "elder" emphasizes what he is, while "bishop," that is "overseer," emphasizes what the elder or presbyter does.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=BISHOP">BISHOP</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=CHURCH+GOVERNMENT">CHURCH GOVERNMENT</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=MINISTRY">MINISTRY</a>`68';
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isbe[2942]='Elder in the Old Testament`el\'-der, (zaqen):<P>Among primitive peoples authority seems naturally to be invested in those who by virtue of greater age and, consequently, experience are best fitted to govern thus Iliad iii.149. Later the idea of age became merged in that of dignity (Il. ii.404, ii.570; Odyssey ii.14). In like manner the word patres came to be used among the Romans (Cic. Rep. 2,8,14). So also among the Germans authority was entrusted to those who were older; compare Tacitus Agricola. The same is true among the Arabians to the present day, the sheik being always a man of age as well as of authority.<P>From the first the Hebrews held this view of government, although the term "elder" came later to be used of the idea of the authority for which, at first, age was regarded necessary. Thus the office appears in both the Jahwist, J (9th century BC) (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',3,16);">Ex 3:16</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',12,21);">12:21</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',24,1);">24:1</a>, of the elders of the Hebrews; and of the Egyptians, <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',50,7);">Ge 50:7</a>); and Elohist (E) (8th century BC) (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',17,5);">Ex 17:5</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',18,12);">18:12</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',19,7);">19:7</a> (the second Deuteronomist (D2)); <a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',24,31);">Jos 24:31</a>, elders of Israel, or of the people. Compare the principle of selection of heads of tens, fifties, etc., <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',18,13);">Ex 18:13</a>ff, seventy being selected from a previous body of elders); compare Jahwist(j)-Elohist(e) (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',11,16,24);">Nu 11:16, 24</a>). Seventy are also mentioned in <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',24,1);">Ex 24:1</a>, while in <a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',8,14);">Jud 8:14</a> seventy-seven are mentioned, although this might be taken to include seven princes. Probably the number was not uniform.<P>Elder as a title continues to have place down through the times of the Judges (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',8,16);">Jud 8:16</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',2,7);">2:7</a>); compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Rth\',4,2);">Ru 4:2</a>ff into the kingdom. Saul asked to be honored before the elders (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',15,30);">1Sa 15:30</a>); the elders of Bethlehem appeared before Samuel (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',16,4);">1Sa 16:4</a>); the elders appeared before David in Hebron (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',17,15);">2Sa 17:15</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',11,3);">1Ch 11:3</a>); elders took part in the temple procession of Solomon (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',8,3);">1Ki 8:3</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',5,4);">2Ch 5:4</a>). They continued through the Persian period <a onClick="return mV(\'Ezr\',5,5,9);">Ezr 5:5, 9</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Ezr\',6,7,14);">6:7, 14</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Ezr\',10,8,14);">10:8, 14</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Joe\',1,14);">Joe 1:14</a> margin and the Maccabean period Judith 6:16; 7:23; 8:10; 10:6; 13:12; 1Macc 12:35, while the New Testament presbuteros, <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',16,21);">Mt 16:21</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',26,47,57);">26:47, 57</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',8,31);">Mr 8:31</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',9,22);">Lu 9:22</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',4,5,23);">Ac 4:5, 23</a> makes frequent mention of the office.<P>The elders served as local magistrates, in bringing murderers to trial (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',19,12);">De 19:12</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',21,1);">21:1</a>ff; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',20,4);">Jos 20:4</a>), punishing a disobedient son (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',21,19);">De 21:19</a>), inflicting penalty for slander (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',22,15);">De 22:15</a>), for noncompliance with the Levirate marriage law (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',25,7);">De 25:7</a>ff), enforcing the Law (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',27,1);">De 27:1</a>), conducting the service in expiation of unwitting violation of the Law (<a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',4,13);">Le 4:13</a>ff).<P>In certain passages different classes of officers are mentioned as "judges and officers" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',16,18);">De 16:18</a>), "elders" and "officers" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',31,28);">De 31:28</a>), "heads, tribes, elders officers" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',29,10);">De 29:10 (Hebrew 9)</a>. It is probable that both classes were selected from among the elders, and that to one class was assigned the work of judging, and that the "officers" exercised executive functions (Schurer). In entirely Jewish communities the same men would be both officers of the community and elders of the synagogue. In this case the same men would have jurisdiction over civil and religious matters.<P>LITERATURE.<P>Schurer, GJV3, section 23, especially 175ff Eng. edition, II, i, 149ff; Benzinger, H A2, 51; Deissmann, Bibelstudien, 153ff (sv. ...); BDB, 278 (...); Preuschen, Griechisch-Deutsches Handworterbuch, under the word, 958 f.``164';
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isbe[2943]='Elead`el\'-e-ad (\'el\'adh, "God has testified"):<P>An Ephraimite, slain while making a raid, by the men of Gath (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',7,21);">1Ch 7:21</a>).``1';
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isbe[2944]='Eleadah; Eladah`el-e-a\'-da, (the King James Version) (\'el\'adhah, "God has adorned"):<P>An Ephraimite (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',7,20);">1Ch 7:20</a>).``1';
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isbe[2945]='Elealeh`e-le-a\'-le (\'el\'aleh, "God has ascended"):<P>Lay in the country taken from Sihon and within the lot given to Reuben (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',32,3,17);">Nu 32:3, 17</a>f). "Their names being changed" seems to apply to all the towns mentioned. There is no indication of the other names. Elealeh is noticed with Heshbon in the oracles against Moab in <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',15,4);">Isa 15:4</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',16,9);">16:9</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',48,34);">Jer 48:34</a>. Eusebius (Onomasticon) locates it one Roman mile from Heshbon. It is represented today by el\'Al, a mound crowned with ruins, about a mile north of Chesban.``1';
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isbe[2946]='Eleasa`el-e-a\'-sa.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ELASA">ELASA</a>`1';
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isbe[2947]='Eleasah`el-e-a\'-sa (in Hebrew identical with <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ELASAH">ELASAH</a>, which see):<P>(1) A descendant of Judah (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',2,39,40);">1Ch 2:39-40</a>).<P>(2) A Benjamite, a descendant of Saul (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',8,37);">1Ch 8:37</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',9,43);">9:43</a>).``1';
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isbe[2948]='Eleazar`el-e-a\'-zar, e-le-a\'-zar (\'el-\'azar; Eleazar, "God is helper"):<P>(1) The 3rd son of Aaron by Elisheba (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',6,23);">Ex 6:23</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',3,2);">Nu 3:2</a>).<P>He married one of the daughters of Putiel, who bore him Phinehas (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',6,25);">Ex 6:25</a>). With his father and 3 brothers he was consecrated to the priest\'s office (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',28,1);">Ex 28:1</a>). After the destruction of Nadab and Abihu, he occupied a more important position, and he and Ithamar "ministered in the priest\'s office in the presence of Aaron their father" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',10,6);">Le 10:6</a>f; <a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',3,4);">Nu 3:4</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',24,2);">1Ch 24:2</a>ff). He was given the oversight of the Levites and had charge of the tabernacle and all within it (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',3,32);">Nu 3:32</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',4,16);">4:16</a>). To Eleazar fell the duty of beating out for an altar covering the censers of Korah and his fellow-conspirators who had attempted to seize the priesthood (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',16,37,39);">Nu 16:37, 39</a>). On the death of Aaron, Eleazar succeeded him (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',20,25);">Nu 20:25</a>ff). He assisted Moses with the census after the plague in the plains of Moab (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',26,1);">Nu 26:1</a>ff), and with Moses and the elders heard the petition of the daughters of Zelophehad who wished to be served as heirs to their father (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',27,1);">Nu 27:1</a>ff). After the entrance into Canaan, Eleazar and Joshua gave effect to the decision arrived at by giving the daughters of Zelophehad a share in the land of Manasseh (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',17,4);">Jos 17:4</a>). He was priest and adviser to Joshua, the successor of Moses (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',27,19);">Nu 27:19</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',31,12);">31:12</a>ff), whom he also assisted in partitioning Canaan among the tribes (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',34,17);">Nu 34:17</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',14,1);">Jos 14:1</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',19,51);">19:51</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',21,1);">21:1</a>). He was buried in the hill (the Revised Version, margin "Gibeah") of Phinehas his son in the hill country of Ephraim (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',24,33);">Jos 24:33</a>). For some reason unknown the descendants of Ithamar seem to have held the chief position among the priests from Eli till the accession of Solomon, when Abiathar was sent into retirement, and Zadok, the descendant of Eleazar, was appointed in his place (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',2,26);">1Ki 2:26</a>ff). Ezra was a descendant of Zadok (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ezr\',7,1);">Ezr 7:1</a>ff); and the high priest\'s office was in the family of Zadok till the time of the Maccabees.<P>(2) The son of Abinadab, sanctified to keep the ark of Yahweh, when it was brought from Beth-shemesh to Kiriath-jearim after being sent back by the Philistines (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',7,1);">1Sa 7:1</a>).<P>(3) The son of Dodai, one of David\'s three mighty men. A famous feat of arms with David at Ephes-dammim is recorded (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',23,9);">2Sa 23:9</a>f; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',11,12);">1Ch 11:12</a>f where he is named the son of Dodo).<P>(4) A Levite, a son of Mahli, a Merarite. It is recorded that he had no sons, but daughters only, who were married to their cousins (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',23,21,22);">1Ch 23:21-22</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',24,28);">24:28</a>).<P>(5) A priest who accompanied Ezra from Babylon (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ezr\',8,33);">Ezr 8:33</a>); the son of Phinehas. (5) and (6) may be identical.<P>(6) A priest who took part in the dedication of the wall of Jerusalem (<a onClick="return mV(\'Neh\',12,42);">Ne 12:42</a>).<P>(7) A son of Mattathias and brother of Judas Maccabeus (1Macc 2:5; 6:43f; 2Macc 8:23).<P>See <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ASMONEANS">ASMONEANS</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=MACCABAEUS;+ MACCABEES">MACCABEES</a>.<P>(8, 9) Two others are mentioned in 1Macc 8:17; 2Macc 6:18ff.<P>(10) An ancestor of Jesus, 3 generations before Joseph (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',1,15);">Mt 1:15</a>).``78';
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isbe[2949]='Eleazurus`el-e-a-zu\'-rus, the Revised Version (British and American) <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ELIASIBUS">ELIASIBUS</a> (which see).``1';
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isbe[2950]='Elect`e-lekt\':<P>That is, "chosen," "selected."<P>In the Old Testament the word represents derivatives of bachar, elegit;<P>In the New Testament eklektos. It means properly an object or objects of selection.<P>This primary meaning sometimes passes into that of "eminent," "valuable," "choice"; often thus as a fact, in places where the King James Version uses "chosen" (or "elect") to translate the original (eg. <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',42,1);">Isa 42:1</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Pe\',2,6);">1Pe 2:6</a>). In the King James Version "elect" (or "chosen") is used of Israel as the race selected for special favor and to be the special vehicle of Divine purposes (<span class="noTag">so</span> 4 times in Apocrypha, Tobit and Ecclus); of the great Servant of Yahweh (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',23,35);">Lu 23:35</a>; the "Christ of God, his chosen"); compare eminent saints as Jacob, Moses, Rufus (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',16,13);">Ro 16:13</a>); "the lady," and her "sister" of 2 John; of the holy angels (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ti\',5,21);">1Ti 5:21</a>); with a possible suggestion of the lapse of other angels. Otherwise, and prevalently in the New Testament, it denotes a human community, also described as believers, saints, the Israel of God; regarded as in some sense selected by Him from among men, objects of His special favor, and correspondingly called to special holiness and service.<P>In the English versions "elect" is not used as a verb: "to choose" is preferred; eg. <a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',13,20);">Mr 13:20</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eph\',1,4);">Eph 1:4</a>.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ELECTION">ELECTION</a>`46';
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isbe[2951]='Elect Lady`e-lekt\' la\'-di (eklekte kuria; 2 <a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',1,1);">Joh 1:1</a>):<P>In accordance with strict grammatical usage these words of address may be translated in three ways: "to an elect lady" (which as an address is too indefinite); or, both words being taken as proper names, "to Eklekte Kuria" (an improbable combination of two very rare names); or "to Eklekte, lady" = anglice, "to the lady (or \'Madam\') Eklekte."<P>The other translations which have been given<65>"to the elect lady" or "to the elect Kuria"<22>are open to objection on account of the omission of the article; but this violation of rule is perhaps not without parallel (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'1Pe\',1,1);">1Pe 1:1</a>).<P>The translation adopted will partly depend upon whether we regard the epistle as addressed to an individual or to a community. Dr. Rendel Harris believes this question to be settled by the discovery in the papyri of numerous instances which prove that kurios and kuria were used by ancient letter-writers as terms of familiar endearment, applicable to brother, sister, son, wife, or intimate friend of either sex (Expositor, March, 1901; see also Findlay, Fellowship in the Life Eternal, chapter iii). In the light of this suggestion we should naturally translate, "to my (dear) lady Eklekte."<P>Grammatically, this is strongly supported by <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ti\',1,2);">1Ti 1:2</a> and <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ti\',1,2);">2Ti 1:2</a> (Timotheo gnesio...agapeto...tekno = "to Timothy my true...beloved...child"); and the fact that the name Eklekte has not yet been discovered, though Eklektos has, offers no grave objection. This is the translation favored by Clement of Alexandria, who says of the epistle: scripta vero est ad quandam Babyloniam nomine Electam, significat autem electionem ecclesiae sanctae ("It is written to a certain Babylonian, Electa by name; but it signifies the further election of the holy church"). It seems doubtful whether he means by the last clause that Electa is simply a personification of the church, or a real person whose name was derived from the Christian idea of election. Either way the rendering, "to the lady Electa," is suitable, and upon the whole it seems the best. Eklekte is not an adjective but a noun. If a person is intended, it is "the lady Electa"; if a church, it is designated, not "the elect Lady," but "the lady Elect." The mention of "thy elect sister" in <a onClick="return mV(\'2Jo\',1,13);">2Joh 1:13</a> does not hinder either supposition.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=CYRIA">CYRIA</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=JOHN+THE+EPISTLES+OF">JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF</a>`97';
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isbe[2952]='Election`e-lek\'-shun (ekloge, "choice," "selection"):<P>Contents<P><b>I. THE WORD IN SCRIPTURE</b><P><b>II. THE MYSTERIOUS ELEMENT</b><P><b>III. INCIDENCE UPON COMMUNITY AND INDIVIDUAL</b><P><b>IV. COGNATE AND ILLUSTRATIVE BIBLICAL LANGUANGE</b><P><b>V. LIMITATIONS OF INQUIRY HERE. SCOPE OF ELECTION</b><P><b>VI. PERSEVERANCE</b><P><p><b>VII. CONSIDERATIONS IN RELIEF OF THOUGHT</b><P class="in15">1. Antinomies<P class="in15">2. Fatalism Another Thing<P class="in15">3. The Moral Aspects<P class="in15">4. "We know in Part"<P class="in15">5. The Unknown Future<hr /><P>I. The Word in Scripture.<P>The word is absent from the Old Testament, where the related Hebrew verb (bachar) is frequent. In the New Testament it occurs 6 times (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',9,11);">Ro 9:11</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',11,5,7,28);">11:5, 7, 28</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Th\',1,4);">1Th 1:4</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Pe\',1,10);">2Pe 1:10</a>). In all these places it appears to denote an act of Divine selection taking effect upon human objects so as to bring them into special and saving relations with God: a selection such as to be at once a mysterious thing, transcending human analysis of its motives (so eminently in <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',9,11);">Ro 9:11</a>), and such as to be knowable by its objects, who are (2 Pet) exhorted to "make it sure," certain, a fact to consciousness. It is always (with one exception, <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',9,11);">Ro 9:11</a>; see below) related to a community, and thus has close affinity with the Old Testament teachings upon the privileged position of Israel as the chosen, selected race (see under <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ELECT">ELECT</a>). The objects of election in the New Testament are, in effect, the Israel of God, the new, regenerate race called to special privilege and special service. From one point of view, that of the external marks of Christianity, they may thus be described as the Christian community in its widest sense, the sense in which the sacramental position and the real are prima facie assumed to coincide. But from 2 Peter it is manifest that much more than this has to be said if the incidence of the word present to the writer\'s mind is to be rightly felt. It is assumed there that the Christian, baptized and a worshipper, may yet need to make "sure" his "calling and election" as a fact to his consciousness. This implies conditions in the "election" which far transcend the tests of sacred rite and external fellowship.<P>II. The Mysterious Element.<P>Such impressions of depth and mystery in the word are confirmed by the other, passages. In <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',9,11);">Ro 9:11</a> the context is charged with the most urgent and even staggering challenges to submission and silence in the presence of the inscrutable. To illustrate large assertions as to the liberty and sovereignty of the Divine dealings with man, the apostle brings in Esau and Jacob, individuals, twins as yet unborn, and points to the inscrutable difference of the Divine action toward them as such. Somehow, as a matter of fact, the Eternal appears as appointing to unborn Esau a future of comparative disfavor and to Jacob of favor; a future announced to the still pregnant mother. Such discrimination was made and announced, says the apostle, "that the purpose of God according to election might stand." In the whole passage the gravest stress is laid upon the isolation of the "election" from the merit or demerit of its objects.<P>III. Incidence upon Community and Individual.<P>It is observable that the same characteristic, the inscrutable, the sovereign, is attached in the Old Testament to the "election" of a favored and privileged nation. Israel is repeatedly reminded (see eg. <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',7,\'1-\');">De 7</a>) that the Divine call and choice of them to be the people of God has no relation to their virtues, or to their strength. The reason lies out of sight, in the Divine mind. So too "the Israel of God" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gal\',6,16);">Ga 6:16</a>) in the New Testament, the Christian community, "the new, peculiar race," holds its great privileges by quite unmerited favor (eg. <a onClick="return mV(\'Tts\',3,5);">Tit 3:5</a>). And the nature of the case here leads, as it does not in the case of the natural Israel, to the thought of a Divine election of the individual, similarly inscrutable and sovereign. For the idea of the New Israel involves the thought that in every genuine member of it the provisions of the New Covenant (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',31,31);">Jer 31:31</a>f) are being fulfilled: the sins are remembered no more, and the law is written in the heart. The bearer of the Christian name, but not of the Christian spiritual standing and character, having "not the Spirit of Christ, is none of his" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',8,9);">Ro 8:9</a>). The chosen community accordingly, not as it seems ab extra, but as it is in its essence, is a fellowship of individuals each of whom is an object of unmerited Divine favor, taking effect in the new life. And this involves the exercise of electing mercy. Compare eg. <a onClick="return mV(\'1Pe\',1,3);">1Pe 1:3</a>. And consider <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',11,\'4-7\');">Ro 11:4-7</a> (where observe the exceptional use of "the election," meaning "the company of the elect").<P>IV. Cognate and Illustrative Biblical Language.<P>It is obvious that the aspects of mystery which gather round the word "election" are not confined to it alone. An important class of words, such as "calling," "predestination" "foreknowledge," "purpose," "gift," bears this same character; asserting or connoting, in appropriate contexts, the element of the inscrutable and sovereign in the action of the Divine will upon man, and particularly upon man\'s will and affection toward God. And it will be felt by careful students of the Bible in its larger and more general teachings that one deep characteristic of the Book, which with all its boundless multiplicity is yet one, is to emphasize on the side of man everything that can humble, convict, reduce to worshipping silence (see for typical passages <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',40,3,4);">Job 40:3-4</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',3,19);">Ro 3:19</a>), and on the side of God everything which can bring home to man the transcendence and sovereign claims of his almighty Maker. Not as unrelated utterances, but as part of a vast whole of view and teaching, occur such passages as <a onClick="return mV(\'Eph\',2,8,9);">Eph 2:8-9</a> and <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',11,\'33-36\');">Ro 11:33-36</a>, and even the stern, or rather awestruck, phrases of <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',9,20,21);">Ro 9:20-21</a>, where the potter and the clay are used in illustration.<P>V. Limitations of Inquiry Here. Scope of Election.<P>We have sought thus in the simplest outline to note first the word "election" and then some related Scriptural words and principles, weighing the witness they bear to a profound mystery in the action of the Divine will upon man, in the spiritual sphere. What we have thus seen leaves still unstated what, according to Scripture, is the goal and issue of the elective act. In this article, remembering that it is part of a Bible Encyclopedia, we attempt no account of the history of thought upon election, in the successive Christian centuries, nor again any discussion of the relation of election in Scripture to extra-Scriptural philosophies, to theories of necessity, determination, fatalism. We attempt only to see the matter as it lies before us in the Bible. Studying it so, we find that this mysterious action of God on man has relation, in the Christian revelation, to nothing short of the salvation of the individual (and of the community of such individuals) from sin and condemnation, and the preservation of the saved to life eternal. We find this not so much in any single passage as in the main stream of Biblical language and tone on the subject of the Divine selective action. But it is remarkable that in the recorded thought of our Lord Himself we find assertions in this direction which could hardly be more explicit. See <a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',6,37,44,45);">Joh 6:37, 44-45</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',10,\'27-29\');">10:27-29</a>. To the writer the best summary of the Scriptural evidence, at once definite and restrained, is the language of the 17th Anglican art.: "They which be endued with so excellent a benefit of God be called according to God\'s purpose by His Spirit working in due season; they through grace obey the calling; they be justified freely; they be made sons of God by adoption; they be made like the image of His only begotten Son Jesus Christ; they walk religiously in good works, and at length, by God\'s mercy, they attain to everlasting felicity."<P>VI. Perseverance.<P>The anxious problem of <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=PERSEVERANCE">PERSEVERANCE</a> will be treated under that word. It may be enough here to say that alike what we are permitted to read as revealed, and what we may humbly apprehend as the reason of the case, tend to the reverent belief that a perseverance (rather of the Lord than of the saints) is both taught and implied. But when we ponder the nature of the subject we are amply prepared for the large range of Scriptures which on the other hand condemn and preclude, for the humble disciple, so gross a misuse of the doctrine as would let it justify one moment\'s presumption upon Divine mercy in the heart which is at the same time sinning against the Divine love and holiness.<P>VII. Considerations in Relief of Thought.<P>We close, in view of this last remark, with some detached notes in relief, well remembering the unspeakable trial which to many devout minds the word before us has always brought.<P>1. Antinomies:<P>First in place and importance is the thought that a spiritual fact like election, which belongs to the innermost purpose and work of the Eternal, necessarily leads us to a region where comprehension is impossible, and where we can only reverently apprehend. The doctrine passes upward to the sphere where antinomies live and move, where we must be content to hear what sound to us contradictions, but which are really various aspects of infinite truth. Let us be content to know that the Divine choice is sovereign; and also that "his tender mercies are over all his works," that \'He willeth not the death of a sinner,\' that "God is love." Let us relieve the tension of such submissive reliance by reverently noting how the supreme antinomy meets one type of human need with its one side, and with its other another. To the "fearful saint" the Divine sovereignty of love is a sacred cordial. To the seeking penitent the Divine comprehensiveness of love opens the door of peace. To the deluded theorist who does not love and obey, the warnings of a fall and ruin which are possible, humanly, from any spiritual height, are a merciful beacon on the rocks.<P>2. Fatalism Another Thing:<P>Further, we remember that election, in Scripture, is as different as possible from the fatal necessity of, eg. the Stoics. It never appears as mechanical, or as a blind destiny. It has to do with the will of a God who has given us otherwise supreme proofs that He is all-good and all-kind. And it is related to man not as a helpless and innocent being but as a sinner. It is never presented as an arbitrary force majeure. Even in <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',9,\'1-\');">Ro 9</a> the "silence" called for is not as if to say, "You are hopelessly passive in the grasp of infinite power," but, "You, the creature, cannot judge your Maker, who must know infinitely more of cause and reason than his handiwork can know." The mystery, we may be sure, had behind it supreme right and reason, but in a region which at present at least we cannot penetrate. Again, election never appears as a violation of human will. For never in the Bible is man treated as irresponsible. In the Bible the relation of the human and Divine wills is inscrutable; the reality of both is assured.<P>3. The Moral Aspects:<P>Never is the doctrine presented apart from a moral context. It is intended manifestly to deepen man\'s submission to<74>not force, but<75>mystery, where such submission means faith. In the practical experience of the soul its designed effect is to emphasize in the believer the consciousness (itself native to the true state of grace) that the whole of his salvation is due to the Divine mercy, no part of it to his merit, to his virtue, to his wisdom. In the sanctified soul, which alone, assuredly, can make full use of the mysterious truth, is it designed to generate, together and in harmony, awe, thanksgiving and repose.<P>4. "We Know in Part":<P>A necessary caution in view of the whole subject is that here, if anywhere in the regions of spiritual study, we inevitably "know in part," and in a very limited part. The treatment of election has at times in Christian history been carried on as if, less by the light of revelation than by logical processes, we could tabulate or map the whole subject. Where this has been done, and where at the same time, under a sort of mental rather than spiritual fascination, election has been placed in the foreground of the system of religious thought, and allowed to dominate the rest, the truth has (to say the least) too often been distorted into an error. The Divine character has been beclouded in its beauty. Sovereignty has been divorced from love, and so defaced into an arbitrary fiat, which has for its only reason the assertion of omnipotence. Thus, the grievous wrong has been done of aischron ti legein peri tou Theiou, "defamation of God." For example, the revelation of a positive Divine selection has been made by inference to teach a corresponding rejection ruthless and terrible, as if the Eternal Love could ever by any possibility reject or crush even the faintest aspiration of the created spirit toward God. For such a thought not even the dark words of <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',9,18);">Ro 9:18</a> give Scriptural excuse. The case there in hand, Pharaoh\'s, is anything but one of arbitrary power trampling on a human will looking toward God and right. Once more, the subject is one as to which we must on principle be content with knowledge so fragmentary that its parts may seem contradictory in our present imperfect light. The one thing we may be sure of behind the veil is, that nothing can be hidden there which will really contradict the supreme and ruling truth that God is love.<P>5. The Unknown Future:<P>Finally, let us from another side remember that here, as always in the things of the Spirit, "we know in part." The chosen multitude are sovereignly "called,...justified,...glorified" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',8,29,30);">Ro 8:29-30</a>). But for what purposes? Certainly not for an end terminating in themselves. They are saved, and kept, and raised to the perfect state, for the service of their Lord. And not till the cloud is lifted from the unseen life can we possibly know what that service under eternal conditions will include, what ministries of love and good in the whole universe of being.``46';
|
||
isbe[2953]='Electrum`e-lek\'-trum:<P>The Revised Version, margin rendering of chashmal, of <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',1,4,27);">Eze 1:4, 27</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',8,2);">8:2</a> Septuagint elektron, Vulgate (Jerome\'s Latin Bible, 390-405 AD.) electrum). Both the King James Version and the English Revised Version have "amber" while the American Standard Revised Version has "glowing metal." Gesenius says electrum must not be understood as being here used for amber, but for a kind of metal remarkable for brightness, compounded of gold and silver. "Amber" is undoubtedly a poor rendering, as the Hebrew term means "polished brass." the American Standard Revised Version has the more correct rendering. <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=AMBER">AMBER</a>, however, may well have been known to Ezekiel (Encyclopaedia Biblica, which see).`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=STONES,+PRECIOUS">STONES, PRECIOUS</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=BUYING">BUYING</a>`62';
|
||
isbe[2954]='Element; Elements`el\'-e-ment, (ta stoicheia, "the letters of the alphabet," "the elements out of which all things are formed," "the heavenly bodies," "the fundamental principles of any art or science"):<P>(1) In <a onClick="return mV(\'2Pe\',3,10);">2Pe 3:10</a>, the constituent parts of the physical universe ("elements shall be dissolved with fervent heat," the American Revised Version, margin "the heavenly bodies").<P>(2) In <a onClick="return mV(\'Gal\',4,3,9);">Ga 4:3, 9</a>, the Revised Version (British and American) has "rudiments," as in the King James Version margin, and in <a onClick="return mV(\'Col\',2,8,20);">Col 2:8, 20</a>, where the reference is to imperfect Jewish ordinances.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=RUDIMENTS">RUDIMENTS</a>`1';
|
||
isbe[2955]='Eleph`e\'-lef (ha-\'eleph, "the ox"):<P>A place in the lot of Benjamin not far from Jerusalem (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',18,28);">Jos 18:28</a>). The name is omitted by Septuagint, unless, indeed, it is combined with that of Zelah. It may be identical with Lifta, a village W. of Jerusalem (Conder, HDB, under the word).<P>Others identify Lifta with Nephtoah.``1';
|
||
isbe[2956]='Elephant`el\'-e-fant<P>(<a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',40,15);">Job 40:15</a> the King James Version margin, the American Revised Version, margin "hippopotamus," the Revised Version (British and American) "ivory"); <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',10,22);">1Ki 10:22</a> the King James Version margin; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',9,21);">2Ch 9:21</a> the King James Version; 1Macc 3:34; 6:28ff; 8:6 Possibly in Job it is the extinct mammoth.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=BEHEMOTH">BEHEMOTH</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=IVORY">IVORY</a>`1';
|
||
isbe[2957]='Elephantine`el-e-fan-ti\'-ne.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=SEVENEH">SEVENEH</a>`1';
|
||
isbe[2958]='Eleutherus`e-lu\'-ther-us (Eleutheros; 1Macc 11:7; 12:30):<P>A river separating Syria and Phoenicia.``1';
|
||
isbe[2959]='Eleven, the`e-lev\'-\'-n, (hoi hendeka):<P>The eleven apostles remaining after the death of Judas. The definite article used serves to designate them as a distinct and definite group whose integrity was not destroyed by the loss of one of the twelve. The college of "the Twelve" had come to be so well recognized that the gospel writers all used on occasions the word with the definite article to represent the Twelve Apostles chosen by Jesus. This custom still remained and the numeral merely changed, as, "Afterward he was manifested unto the eleven" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',16,14);">Mr 16:14</a>; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',24,9,33);">Lu 24:9, 33</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',2,14);">Ac 2:14</a>). On the other hand, however, the substantive is also sometimes used, as "The eleven disciples went into Galilee" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',28,16);">Mt 28:16</a>; compare also <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',1,26);">Ac 1:26</a>). As an illustration of the fixedness of usage, Paul refers to the eleven as "the twelve" when he recounts the appearances of Jesus after His resurrection: "And that he appeared to Cephas; then to the twelve" (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',15,5);">1Co 15:5</a>).``25';
|
||
isbe[2960]='Eleven; Stars`e-lev\'-\'-n.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ASTRONOMY">ASTRONOMY</a>`1';
|
||
isbe[2961]='Elhanan`el-ha\'-nan (\'elchanan, "whom God gave"):<P>(1) A great warrior in the army of David who slew a Philistine giant. There is a discrepancy between <a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',21,19);">2Sa 21:19</a> and <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',20,5);">1Ch 20:5</a>. In the former passage we read, "And there was again war with the Philistines at Gob; and Elhanan, the son of Jaare-oregim the Beth-lehemite, slew Goliath the Gittite, the staff of whose spear was like a weaver\'s beam"; while in the latter we are told, "And there was again war with the Philistines; and Elhanan the son of Jair slew Lahmi the brother of Goliath the Gittite, the staff of whose spear was like a weaver\'s beam." Most modern critics prefer as the original text of the latter part of the two discrepant statements the following: "and Elhanan the son of Jair the Beth-lehemite slew Goliath the Gittite, the staff of whose spear was like a weaver\'s beam." It is contended that the Chronicler slightly modified the text before him, in order to bring it into harmony with <a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',17,\'1-\');">1Sa 17</a>, where David is said to have slain a Philistine giant Goliath. There is almost unanimous agreement that "Jaare-oregim" is a corrupt reading, and the "Jair" in 1 Chronicles is to be preferred. From Jerome to the present some scholars identify Elhanan with David, and thus remove the discrepancy. Ewald (Hist, III, 70) argued that the name "Goliath" was inserted in <a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',17,\'1-\');">1Sa 17</a> and <a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',21,\'1-\');">21</a> by the narrators whose compositions are embodied in Samuel, Elhanan being the real victor over Goliath, while David\'s antagonist was simply called "the Philistine."<P>(2) The son of Dodo of Bethlehem, one of David\'s mighty men (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',23,24);">2Sa 23:24</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',11,26);">1Ch 11:26</a>). Some moderns think that there was only one Elhanan, and that he was the son of Dodo of the clan of Jair.``156';
|
||
isbe[2962]='Eli`e\'-li (\'eli):<P>A descendant of Ithamar, the fourth son of Aaron, who exercised the office of high priest in Shiloh at the time of the birth of Samuel. For the first time in Israel, Eli combined in his own person the functions of high priest and judge, judging Israel for 40 years (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',4,18);">1Sa 4:18</a>). The incidents in Eli\'s life are few; indeed, the main interest of the narrative is in the other characters who are associated with him. The chief interest centers in Samuel. In Eli\'s first interview with Hannah (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',1,12);">1Sa 1:12</a>ff), she is the central figure; in the second interview (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',1,24);">1Sa 1:24</a>ff), it is the child Samuel. When Eli next appears, it is as the father of Hophni and Phinehas, whose worthless and licentious lives had profaned their priestly office, and earned for them the title "men of Belial" (or "worthlessness").<P>Eli administered no stern rebuke to his sons, but only a gentle chiding of their greed and immorality. Thereafter he was warned by a nameless prophet of the downfall of his house, and of the death of his two sons in one day (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',2,\'27-36\');">1Sa 2:27-36</a>), a message later confirmed by Samuel, who had received this word directly from Yahweh Himself (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',3,11);">1Sa 3:11</a>ff). The prophecy was not long in fulfillment. During the next invasion by the Philistines, the Israelites were utterly routed, the ark of God was captured, and Hophni and Phinehas were both slain. When the news reached Eli, he was so overcome that he "fell from off his seat backward by the side of the gate; and his neck brake, and he died" (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',4,18);">1Sa 4:18</a>). The character of Eli, while sincere and devout, seems to have been entirely lacking in firmness. He appears from the history to have been a good man, full of humility and gentleness, but weak and indulgent. His is not a strong personality; he is always overshadowed by some more commanding or interesting figure.``68';
|
||
isbe[2963]='Eli, Eli, Lama, Sabachthani`e\'-li or a\'-le, la\'-ma, sa-bak\'-tha-ni.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=GOD,+NAMES+OF ">ELOI</a>`1';
|
||
isbe[2964]='Eliab`e-li\'-ab (\'eli\'abh, "God is father"):<P>(1) Prince of the tribe of Zebulun in the Exodus (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',1,9);">Nu 1:9</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',2,7);">2:7</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',7,24,29);">7:24, 29</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',10,16);">10:16</a>).<P>(2) A Reubenite, father of Dathan and Abiram (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',16,11,12);">Nu 16:11-12</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',26,8);">26:8</a>f; <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',11,6);">De 11:6</a>).<P>(3) Eldest son of Jesse and brother of David (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',16,6);">1Sa 16:6</a>), once called Elihu (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',27,18);">1Ch 27:18</a>). He was of commanding appearance (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',16,6);">1Sa 16:6</a>) and when serving with Saul\'s army at the time when it was confronting the Philistines and Goliath, was inclined to lord it over his brother David (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',17,28);">1Sa 17:28</a>f). His daughter Abihail became a Wife of Rehoboam (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',11,18);">2Ch 11:18</a>).<P>(4) An Ephraimite, an ancestor of Samuel (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',6,27);">1Ch 6:27</a>); called Eliel in <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',6,34);">1Ch 6:34</a>, and Elihu in <a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',1,1);">1Sa 1:1</a>.<P>(5) A Gadire warrior with David (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',12,9);">1Ch 12:9</a>), one of 11 mighty men (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',12,8,14);">1Ch 12:8, 14</a>).<P>(6) A Levite musician (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',15,18,20);">1Ch 15:18, 20</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',16,5);">16:5</a>).<P>(7) An ancestor of Judith (Judith 8:1; compare Judith 9:2).``57';
|
||
isbe[2965]='Eliada; Eliadah`e-li\'-a-da, (\'elyadha\', "God is knowing." Compare HPN,219,266, 301; Epidae, or Elidae):<P>(1) One of the sons of David (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',5,16);">2Sa 5:16</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',3,8);">1Ch 3:8</a>; called <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=BEELIADA">BEELIADA</A>, <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',14,7);">1Ch 14:7</a> (which see)).<P>(2) A descendant of Benjamin and a captain in the army of Jehoshaphat, commander of 200,000 men (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',17,17);">2Ch 17:17</a>).<P>(3) Father of Rezon, an "adversary" of Solomon (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',11,23);">1Ki 11:23</a>, the King James Version "Eliadah").``1';
|
||
isbe[2966]='Eliadas`e-li\'-a-das (Eliadas):<P>A son of Zamoth who had married a strange wife (1Esdras 9:28); called Elioenai in <a onClick="return mV(\'Ezr\',10,27);">Ezr 10:27</a>.``1';
|
||
isbe[2967]='Eliadun`e-li\'-a-dun, the Revised Version (British and American)<P><a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ILIADUN">ILIADUN</a> (which see).``1';
|
||
isbe[2968]='Eliah`e-li\'-a.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ELIJAH">ELIJAH</a>`1';
|
||
isbe[2969]='Eliahba`e-li\'-a-ba, e-li-a\'-ba (\'elyach-ba\', "God hides"):<P>One of David\'s 30 mighty men (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',23,32);">2Sa 23:32</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',11,33);">1Ch 11:33</a>).``1';
|
||
isbe[2970]='Eliakim`e-li\'-a-kim (\'elyaqim; Eliakeim, "God sets up"):<P>(1) The son of Hilkiah who succeeded Shebna as gorvernor of the palace and "grand vizier" under Hezekiah (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',22,20);">Isa 22:20</a>). The functions of his office are seen from the oracle of Isaiah in which Shebna is deposed and Eliakim set in his place (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',22,15);">Isa 22:15</a>ff). He is the "treasurer" (the Revised Version, margin "steward"), and is "over the house" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',22,15);">Isa 22:15</a>).<P>At his installation he is clothed with a robe and girdle, the insignia of his office, and, having the government committed into his hand, is the "father to the inhabitants of Jerusalem, and to the house of Judah" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',22,21);">Isa 22:21</a>). The key of the house of David is laid on his shoulder, and he alone has power to open and shut, this being symbolic of his absolute authority as the king\'s representative (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',22,22);">Isa 22:22</a>).<P>One of Solomon\'s officials is the first mentioned as occupying this position (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',4,6);">1Ki 4:6</a>), and this office was continued in both the Northern and Southern Kingdom (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',16,9);">1Ki 16:9</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',18,3);">18:3</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',10,5);">2Ki 10:5</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',15,5);">15:5</a>). Its importance is seen from the fact that after Azariah was smitten with leprosy, Jotham his heir "was over the household, judging the people of the land" (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',15,5);">2Ki 15:5</a>).<P>When Sennacherib sent an army against Jerusalem in 701, Eliskim was one of these Jewish princes who held on behalf of Hezekiah a parley with the Assyrian officers (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',18,18,26,37);">2Ki 18:18, 26, 37</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',36,3,11,22);">Isa 36:3, 11, 22</a>). As a result of the invader\'s threats, he was sent by Hezekiah in sackcloth to Isaiah, entreating his prayers to Yahweh on behalf of Jerusalem (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',19,2);">2Ki 19:2</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',37,2);">Isa 37:2</a>).<P>(2) The original name of Jehoiakim, the son of Josiah, whom Pharaoh-necoh made king of Judah (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',23,34);">2Ki 23:34</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',36,4);">2Ch 36:4</a>).<P>(3) A priest who assisted at the dedication of the wall of Jerusalem, rebuilt after his return from Babylon (<a onClick="return mV(\'Neh\',12,41);">Ne 12:41</a>).<P>(4) A grandson of Zerubbabel and ancestor of Jesus (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',1,13);">Mt 1:13</a>).<P>(5) An ancestor of Jesus (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',3,30);">Lu 3:30</a>).``78';
|
||
isbe[2971]='Eliali`e-li\'-a-li (Elialei):<P>1Esdras 9:34; possibly corresponds to "Binnui" in <a onClick="return mV(\'Ezr\',10,38);">Ezr 10:38</a>.``1';
|
||
isbe[2972]='Eliam`e-li\'-am (\'eli\'-am, "people\'s God"?):<P>(1) Father of Bathsheba (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',11,3);">2Sa 11:3</a>); in <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',3,5);">1Ch 3:5</a> called Ammiel.<P>(2) One of David\'s "thirty," son of Ahithophel the Gilonite (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',23,34);">2Sa 23:34</a>).``1';
|
||
isbe[2973]='Eliaonias`e-li-a-o-ni\'-as (Elialonias):<P>A descendant of Phaath Moab (1Esdras 8:31); called "Eliehoenai" in <a onClick="return mV(\'Ezr\',8,4);">Ezr 8:4</a>.``1';
|
||
isbe[2974]='Elias`e-li\'-as.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ELIJAH">ELIJAH</a>`1';
|
||
isbe[2975]='Eliasaph`e-li\'-a-saf (\'elyacaph, "God has added"):<P>(1) Son of Deuel; prince of the tribe of Gad in the Exodus (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',1,14);">Nu 1:14</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',2,14);">2:14</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',7,42,47);">7:42, 47</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',10,20);">10:20</a>).<P>(2) Son of Lael; prince of the Gershonites (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',3,24);">Nu 3:24</a>).``1';
|
||
isbe[2976]='Eliashib`e-li\'-a-shib (\'elyashibh, "God restores"):<P>(1) A descendant of David (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',3,24);">1Ch 3:24</a>).<P>(2) Head of the eleventh course of priests (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',24,12);">1Ch 24:12</a>).<P>(3) The high priest in the time of Nehemiah. He, with his brethren the priests, helped in the rebuilding of the wall (<a onClick="return mV(\'Neh\',3,1);">Ne 3:1</a>). But later he was "allied unto Tobiah" the Ammonite (<a onClick="return mV(\'Neh\',13,4);">Ne 13:4</a>) and allowed that enemy of Nehemiah the use of a great chamber in the temple (<a onClick="return mV(\'Neh\',13,5);">Ne 13:5</a>); and one of his grandsons, a son of Joiada, married a daughter of Sanballat the Horonite and was for this expelled from the community by Nehemiah (<a onClick="return mV(\'Neh\',13,28);">Ne 13:28</a>).<P>(4,5,6) Three Israelites, one a "singer," who had married foreign wives (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ezr\',10,24,27,36);">Ezr 10:24, 27, 36</a>).<P>(7) Father of Jehohanan (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ezr\',10,6);">Ezr 10:6</a>); probably identical with (3) above. Called Eliasib in 1Esdras 9:1.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=SANBALLAT">SANBALLAT</a>`57';
|
||
isbe[2977]='Eliasib`e-li\'-a-sib.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ELIASHIB">ELIASHIB</a>`1';
|
||
isbe[2978]='Eliasibus`e-li-as\'-i-bus (Eliasibos, the King James Version Eleazurus):<P>One of the holy singers who had married a foreign wife (1Esdras 9:24); called "Eliashib" in <a onClick="return mV(\'Ezr\',10,27);">Ezr 10:27</a>.``1';
|
||
isbe[2979]='Eliasimus`e-li-as\'-i-mus (Eliasimos; the King James Version Elisimus):<P>One who had married a foreign wife (1Esdras 9:28).``1';
|
||
isbe[2980]='Eliasis`e-li\'-a-sis (Eliasis):<P>One who had married a foreign wife (1Esdras 9:34); corresponds to "Jaasu" in <a onClick="return mV(\'Ezr\',10,37);">Ezr 10:37</a>.``1';
|
||
isbe[2981]='Eliathah`e-li\'-a-tha (\'eli\'-athah, "God has come"):<P>A Hemanite, head of the twentieth division of the temple musicians (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',25,4,27);">1Ch 25:4, 27</a>).``1';
|
||
isbe[2982]='Elidad`e-li\'-dad (\'elidhadh, "God has loved"):<P>Prince of Benjamin in the division of the land (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',34,21);">Nu 34:21</a>); perhaps the same as <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ELDAD">ELDAD</a> (which see).``1';
|
||
isbe[2983]='Eliehoenai`e-li-e-ho\'-e-ni (\'elyeho\'enay, "to Yahweh are mine eyes"):<P>(1) (the King James Version Elioenai) a Korahite doorkeeper (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',26,3);">1Ch 26:3</a>).<P>(2) (the King James Version Elihoenai) Head of a family in the Return (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ezr\',8,4);">Ezr 8:4</a>).``1';
|
||
isbe[2984]='Eliel`e-li\'-el, el\'-i-el (\'eli\'el, "El is God," or "my God is God"):<P>(1,2,3) Mighty men of David (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',11,46,47);">1Ch 11:46-47</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',12,11);">12:11</a>).<P>(4) A chief of Manasseh, east of the Jordan (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',5,24);">1Ch 5:24</a>).<P>(5, 6) Two chiefs of Benjamin (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',8,20,22);">1Ch 8:20, 22</a>).<P>(7) A chief Levite from Hebron (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',15,9,11);">1Ch 15:9, 11</a>):<P>(8) A Kohathite in the line of Elkshah, Samuel and Heman (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',6,34);">1Ch 6:34</a>).<P>(9) A Levite of the time of Hezekiah (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',31,13);">2Ch 31:13</a>).`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ELIAB">ELIAB</a>`1';
|
||
isbe[2985]='Elienai`el-i-e\'-na-i (\'eli\'enay):<P>A Benjamite chief (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',8,20);">1Ch 8:20</a>)``1';
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isbe[2986]='Eliezer`el-i-e\'-zer, e-li-e\'-zer (\'eli\'ezer; Eliezer, "God is help"):<P>(1) The chief servant of Abram (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',15,2);">Ge 15:2</a>); the American Standard Revised Version "Eliezer of Damascus," the English Revised Version "Dammesek Eliezer." The Hebrew is peculiar: literally, "And the son of the possession (mesheq) of my house is Dammeseq (of) Eliezer." A possible but unlikely meaning is that his property would become the possession of Damascus, the city of Eliezer. Targum Syriac (Revised Version margin) read "Eliezer the Damascene": this supposes a reading, "Eliezer ha- dammasqi" or "mid-dammeseq." The text may be corrupt: the assonance between mesheq and Dammeseq is suspicious. Abram calls Eliezer "one born in my house" i.e. a dependant, a member of his household, and so regards him as his heir, Lot having gone from him (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',13,\'1-\');">Ge 13</a>). Eliezer is probably the servant, "the eider of his house, that ruled over all that he had," of <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',24,\'1-\');">Ge 24</a>.<P>(2) The 2nd son of Moses and Zipporah, called thus for "the God of my father was my help, and delivered me from the sword of Pharaoh" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',18,4);">Ex 18:4</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',23,15);">1Ch 23:15</a>ff).<P>(3) A son of Becher, one of the sons of Benjamin (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',7,8);">1Ch 7:8</a>).<P>(4) A priest who assisted in bringing up the ark from the house of Obed-edom to Jerusalem (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',15,24);">1Ch 15:24</a>).<P>(5) The son of Zichri, ruler over the Reubenites in the time of David (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',27,16);">1Ch 27:16</a>).<P>(6) The son of Dodavahu of Mareshah who prophesied the destruction of the ships which Jehochaphat, king of Judah, built, because he had done so in cooperation with Ahaziah, king of Israel (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',20,35);">2Ch 20:35</a>ff).<P>(7) One of the messengers whom Ezra sent to Iddo, the chief at Casiphia, with the request for ministers for the Temple (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ezr\',8,16);">Ezr 8:16</a>ff).<P>(8,9,10) A priest, a Levite, and one of the sons of Harim who had married non-Israelitish women (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ezr\',10,18,23,31);">Ezr 10:18, 23, 31</a>).<P>(11) An ancestor of Jesus in the genealogy given by Luke (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',3,29);">Lu 3:29</a>).``78';
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isbe[2987]='Elihaba`e-li\'-ha-ba`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ELIAHBA">ELIAHBA</a>`1';
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isbe[2988]='Elihoenai`el-i-ho-e\'-na-i.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ELIEHOENAI">ELIEHOENAI</a>`1';
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isbe[2989]='Elihoreph`el-i-ho\'-ref (\'elichoreph, "God of autumn"?):<P>A scribe of Solomon and son of Shisha (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',4,3);">1Ki 4:3</a>).``1';
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isbe[2990]='Elihu (1)`e-li\'-hu (\'elihu; Eleiou, "He is (my) God," or "my God is He"):<P>(1) An ancestor of Samuel (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',1,1);">1Sa 1:1</a>), called Eliel in <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',6,34);">1Ch 6:34</a> and Eliab in <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',6,27);">1Ch 6:27</a>. See <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ELIAB">ELIAB</a>.<P>(2) Found in <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',27,18);">1Ch 27:18</a> for Eliab, David\'s eldest brother (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',16,6);">1Sa 16:6</a>); called "one of the brethren of D."<P>(3) A Manassite who joined David at Ziklag (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',12,20);">1Ch 12:20</a>).<P>(4) A Korahite porter (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',26,7);">1Ch 26:7</a>).<P>(5) A friend of Job. See next article [<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ELIHU+(2)">Elihu (2)</a>].<P>(6) An ancestor of Judith (Judith 8:1).``1';
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isbe[2991]='Elihu (2)` (\'elihu, \'elihu\', "He is (my) God"; Elious):<P>One of the disputants in the Book of Job; a young man who, having listened in silence to the arguments of Job and his friends, is moved to prolong the discussion and from his more just views of truth set both parties right. He is of the tribe of Buz (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',22,21);">Ge 22:21</a>), a brother-tribe to that of Uz, and of the family of Ram, or Aram, that is, an Aramean. He is not mentioned as one of the characters of the story until chapter <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',32,\'1-\');">32</a>; and then, as the friends are silenced and Job\'s words are ended, Elihu has the whole field to himself, until theophany of the whirlwind proves too portentous for him to bear. His four speeches take up chapters <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',32,\'1-\');">32-37</a>. Some critics have considered that the Elihu portion of the Book of Job was added by a later hand, and urge obscurities and prolixities, as well as a different style, to prove that it was the work of an inferior writer. This estimate seems, however, to take into account only the part it plays in a didactic treatise, or a theological debate. It looks quite different when we read it as a real dramatic element in a story; in other words, when we realize that the prevailing interest of the Book of Job is not dialectic but narrative.<P>Thus viewed, the Elihu episode is a skillfully managed agency in preparing the denouncement. Consider the situation at the end of Job\'s words (<a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',31,40);">Job 31:40</a>). Job has vindicated his integrity and stands ready to present his cause to God (<a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',31,\'35-37\');">Job 31:35-37</a>). The friends, however, have exhausted their resources, and through three discourses have been silent, as it were, snuffed out of existence. It is at this point, then, that Elihu is introduced, to renew their contention with young constructive blood, and represent their cause (as he deems) better than they can themselves. He is essentially at one with them in condemning Job (<a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',34,\'34-37\');">Job 34:34-37</a>); his only quarrel with them is on the score of the inconclusiveness of their arguments (<a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',32,3,5);">32:3,5</a>). His self-portrayal is conceived in a decided spirit of satire on the part of the writer, not unmingled with a sardonic humor. He is very egotistic, very sure of the value of his ideas; much of his alleged prolixity is due to that voluble self-deprecation which betrays an inordinate opinion of oneself (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',32,\'6-22\');">Job 32:6-22</a>). This, whether inferior composition or not, admirably adapts his words to his character. For substance of discourse he adds materially to what the friends have said, but in a more rationalistic vein; speaks edifyingly, as the friends have not done, of the disciplinary value of affliction, and of God\'s means of revelation by dreams and visions and the interpreting of an intercessory friend (<a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',33,\'13-28\');">Job 33:13-28</a>).<P>Very evidently, however, his ego is the center of his system; it is he who sets up as Job\'s mediator (<a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',33,\'5-7\');">Job 33:5-7</a>; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',9,\'32-35\');">Job 9:32-35</a>), and his sage remarks on God\'s power and wisdom in Nature are full of self-importance. All this seems designed to accentuate the almost ludicrous humiliation of his collapse when from a natural phenomenon the oncoming tempest shows unusual and supernatural signs. His words become disjointed and incoherent, and cease with a kind of attempt to recant his pretensions. And the verdict from the whirlwind is: "darkeneth counsel by words without knowledge." Elihu thus has a real function in the story, as honorable as overweening self-confidence is apt to be.``66';
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isbe[2992]='Elijah`e-li\'-ja (\'eliyahu or (4 times) \'eliyah, "Yah is God"; Septuagint Eleiou, New Testament Eleias or Elias, the King James Version of New Testament Elias):<P>Contents<P><b>I. THE WORKS OF ELIJAH</b><P class="in15">1. The Judgment of Drought<P class="in15">2. The Ordeal by Prayer<P class="in15">3. At Horeb<P class="in15">4. The Case of Naboth<P class="in15">5. Elijah and Ahaziah<P class="in15">6. Elijah Translated<P class="in15">7. The Letter to Jehoram<P><b>II. THE WORK OF ELIJAH</b><P><b>III. CHARACTER OF THE PROPHET</b><P><b>IV. MIRACLES IN THE ELIJAH NARRATIVES</b><P><b>V. ELIJAH IN THE NEW TESTAMENT</b><p><b>VI. LITERATURE</b><hr /><P>(1) The great prophet of the times of Ahab, king of Israel. Elijah is identified at his first appearance (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',17,1);">1Ki 17:1</a>) as "Elijah the Tishbite, who was of the sojourners of Gilead." Thus his native place must have been called Tishbeh. A Tishbeh (Thisbe) in the territory of Naphtali is known from Tobit 1:2; but if (with most modern commentators) the reading of the Septuagint in 1Ki is followed, the word translated "sojourners" is itself "Tishbeh," locating the place in Gilead and making the prophet a native of that mountain region and not merely a "sojourner" there.<P>I. The Works of Elijah.<P>In <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',16,\'29-34\');">1Ki 16:29-34</a> we read of the impieties of Ahab, culminating in his patronage of the worship of the Tyrian Baal, god of his Tyrian queen Jezebel (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',16,31);">1Ki 16:31</a>). <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',16,34);">1Ki 16:34</a> mentions as another instance of the little weight attached in Ahab\'s time to ancient prophetic threatenings, the rebuilding by Hiel the Bethelite of the banned city of Jericho, "with the loss" of Hiel\'s eldest and youngest sons. This is the situation which calls for a judgment of Yahweh, announced beforehand, as is often the case, by a faithful prophet of Yahweh.<P>1. The Judgment of Drought:<P>Whether Elijah was already a familiar figure at the court of Ahab, the narrative beginning with <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',17,1);">1Ki 17:1</a> does not state. His garb and manner identified him as a prophet, in any case (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',1,8);">2Ki 1:8</a>; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Zec\',13,4);">Zec 13:4</a>). Elijah declared in few words that Yahweh, true and only rightful God of Israel, whose messenger he was, was even at the very time sending a drought which should continue until the prophet himself declared it at an end. The term is to be fixed, indeed, not by Elijah but by Yahweh; it is not to be short ("these years"), and it is to end only when the chastisement is seen to be sufficient. Guided, as true prophets were continually, by the "word of Yahweh," Elijah then hid himself in one of the ravines east of ("before") the Jordan, where the brook Cherith afforded him water, and ravens brought him abundant food ("bread and flesh" twice daily), <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',17,\'2-6\');">1Ki 17:2-6</a>. As the drought advanced the brook dried up. Elijah was then directed, by the "word of Yahweh," as constantly, to betake himself beyond the western limit of Ahab\'s kingdom to the Phoenician village of Zarephath, near Sidon. There the widow to whom Yahweh sent him was found gathering a few sticks from the ground at the city gate, to prepare a last meal for herself and her son. She yielded to the prophet\'s command that he himself should be first fed from her scanty store; and in return enjoyed the fulfillment of his promise, uttered in the name of Yahweh, that neither barrel of meal nor cruse of oil should be exhausted before the breaking of the drought. (Josephus, Ant, VIII, xiii,2,states on the authority of Menander that the drought extended to Phoenicia and continued there for a full year.) But when the widow\'s son fell sick and died, the mother regarded it as a Divine judgment upon her sins, a judgment which had been drawn upon her by the presence of the man of God. At the prayer of Elijah, life returned to the child (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',17,\'17-24\');">1Ki 17:17-24</a>).<P>"In the third year," <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',18,1);">1Ki 18:1</a> (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',4,25);">Lu 4:25</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jam\',5,17);">Jas 5:17</a> give three years and six months as the length of the drought), Elijah was directed to show himself to Ahab as the herald of rain from Yahweh. How sorely both man and beast in Israel were pressed by drought and the resulting famine, is shown by the fact that King Ahab and his chief steward Obadiah were in person searching through the land for any patches of green grass that might serve to keep alive some of the king\'s own horses and mules (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',18,5,6);">1Ki 18:5-6</a>). The words of Obadiah upon meeting with Elijah show the impression which had been produced by the prophet\'s long absence. It was believed that the Spirit of God had carried Elijah away to some unknown, inaccessible, mysterious region (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',18,10,12);">1Ki 18:10, 12</a>). Obadiah feared that such would again be the case, and, while he entreated the prophet not to make him the bearer of a message to Ahab, appealed to his own well-known piety and zeal, as shown in his sheltering and feeding, during Jezebel\'s persecution, a hundred prophets of Yahweh. Elijah reassured the steward by a solemn oath that he would show himself to Ahab (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',18,15);">1Ki 18:15</a>). The king greeted the prophet with the haughty words, "Is it thou, thou troubler of Israel?" Elijah\'s reply, answering scorn with scorn, is what we should expect from a prophet; the woes of Israel are not to be charged to the prophet who declared the doom, but to the kings who made the nation deserve it (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',18,17,18);">1Ki 18:17-18</a>).<P>2. The Ordeal by Prayer:<P>Elijah went on to challenge a test of the false god\'s power. Among the pensioners of Jezebel were 450 prophets of Baal and 400 prophets of the Asherah<61>still fed by the royal bounty in spite of the famine. Accepting Elijah\'s proposal, Ahab called all these and all the people to Mt. Carmel (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',18,19,20);">1Ki 18:19, 20</a>). Elijah\'s first word to the assembly implied the folly of their thinking that the allegiance of a people could successfully be divided between two deities: "How long go ye limping between the two sides?" (possibly "leaping over two thresholds," in ironical allusion to the custom of leaping over the threshold of an idol temple, to avoid a stumble, which would be unpropitious; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',5,\'1-5\');">1Sa 5:1-5</a>). Taking the people\'s silence as an indication that they admitted the force of his first words, Elijah went on to propose his conditions for the test: a bullock was to be offered to Baal, a bullock to Yahweh, but no fire put under; "The God that answereth by fire, let him be God." The voice of the people approved the proposal as fair (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',18,\'22-24\');">1Ki 18:22-24</a>). Throughout a day of blazing sunshine the prophets of Baal called in frenzy upon their god, while Elijah mocked them with merciless sarcasm (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',18,\'25-29\');">1Ki 18:25-29</a>). About the time for the regular offering of the evening sacrifice in the temple of Yahweh at Jerusalem, Elijah assumed control. Rebuilding an ancient altar thrown down perhaps in Jezebel\'s persecution; using in the rebuilding twelve stones, symbolizing an undivided Israel such as was promised to the patriarch Jacob of old; drenching sacrifice and wood with water from some perennial spring under the slopes of Carmel, until even a trench about the altar, deep and wide enough to have a two-ce\'ah (half-bushel) measure set in it, was filled<65>the prophet called in few and earnest words upon the God of the fathers of the nation (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',18,\'30-37\');">1Ki 18:30-37</a>). The answer of Yahweh by fire, consuming bullock, wood, altar and the very dust, struck the people with awe and fear. Convinced that Yahweh was God alone for them, they readily carried out the prophet\'s stern sentence of death for the prophets of the idol god (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',18,\'38-40\');">1Ki 18:38-40</a>). Next the prophet bade Ahab make haste with the meal, probably a sacrificial feast for the multitude, which had been made ready; because rain was at hand. On the mountain top Elijah bowed in prayer, sending his servant seven times to look out across the sea for the coming storm. At last the appearance of a rising cloud "as small as a man\'s hand" was reported; and before the hurrying chariot of the king could cross the plain to Jezreel it was overtaken by "a great rain" from heavens black with clouds and wind after three rainless years. With strength above nature, Elijah ran like a courier before Ahab to the very gate of Jezreel (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',18,\'41-46\');">1Ki 18:41-46</a>).<P>3. At Horeb:<P>The same night a messenger from Jezebel found Elijah. The message ran, "As surely as thou art Elijah and I am Jezebel" (so the Septuagint), "so let the gods do to me, and more also" (i.e. may I be cut in pieces like a sacrificed animal if I break my vow; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',15,\'8-11\',17,18);">Ge 15:8-11, 17-18</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',34,18,19);">Jer 34:18-19</a>), "if I make not thy life as the life of one of" the slain prophets of Baal "by to-morrow about this time." Explain Elijah\'s action how we may<61>and all the possible explanations of it have found defenders<72>he sought safety in instant flight. At Beersheba, the southernmost town of Judah, he left his "servant," whom the narrative does not elsewhere mention. Going onward into the southern wilderness, he sat down under the scanty shade of a desert broom-bush and prayed that he might share the common fate of mankind in death (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',19,\'1-4\');">1Ki 19:1-4</a>). After sleep he was refreshed with food brought by an angel. Again he slept and was fed. In the strength of that food he then wandered on for forty days and nights, until he found himself at Horeb, the mountain sacred because there Yahweh had revealed Himself to Moses (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',19,\'5-8\');">1Ki 19:5-8</a>). The repetition of identical words by Elijah in <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',19,10);">1Ki 19:10</a> and <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',19,14);">14</a> represents a difficulty. Unless we are to suppose an accidental repetition by a very early copyist (early, since it appears already in the Septuagint), we may see in it an indication that Elijah\'s despondency was not easily removed, or that he sought at Horeb an especial manifestation of Yahweh for his encouragement, or both. The prophet was bidden to take his stand upon the sacred mount; and Yahweh passed by, heralded by tempest, earthquake and thunderstorm (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',19,\'9-12\');">19:9-12</a>). These were Yahweh\'s fore-runners only; Yahweh was not in them, but in the "still small voice," such as the prophets were accustomed to hear within their souls. When Elijah heard the not unfamiliar inner voice, he recognized Yahweh present to hear and answer him. Elijah seems to be seeking to justify his own retreat to the wilderness by the plea that he had been "very jealous," had done in Yahweh\'s cause all that mortal prophet could do, before he fled, yet all in vain! The same people who had forsaken the law and "covenant" of Yahweh, thrown down His altars and slain His prophets, would have allowed the slaughter of Elijah himself at the command of Jezebel; and in him would have perished the last true servant of Yahweh in all the land of Israel (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',19,13,14);">19:13-14</a>).<P>Divine compassion passed by Elijah\'s complaint in order to give him directions for further work in Yahweh\'s cause. Elijah must anoint Hazael to seize the throne of Syria, Israel\'s worst enemy among the neighboring powers; Jehu, in like manner, he must anoint to put an end to the dynasty of Ahab and assume the throne of Israel; and Elisha, to be his own successor in the prophetic office. These three, Hazael and his Syrians, Jehu and his followers, even Elisha himself, are to execute further judgments upon the idolaters and the scorners in Israel. Yahweh will leave Himself 7,000 (a round number, a limited but not an excessively small one, conveying a doctrine, like the doctrine of later prophets, of the salvation of a righteous remnant) in Israel, men proof against the judgment because they did not share the sin. If Elijah was rebuked at all, it was only in the contrast between the 7,000 faithful and the one, himself, which he believed to number all the righteous left alive in Israel (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',19,\'15-18\');">1Ki 19:15-18</a>).<P>4. The Case of Naboth:<P>The anointing of Hazael and of Jehu seems to have been left to Elijah\'s successor; indeed, we read of no anointing of Hazael, but only of a significant interview between that worthy and Elisha (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',8,\'7-15\');">2Ki 8:7-15</a>). Elijah next appears in the narrative as rebuker of Ahab for the judicial murder of Naboth. In the very piece of ground which the king had coveted and seized, the prophet appeared, unexpected and unwelcome, to declare upon Ahab, Jezebel and all their house the doom of a shameful death (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',21,\'1-\');">1Ki 21</a>). There was present at this scene, in attendance upon the king, a captain named Jehu, the very man already chosen as the supplanter of Ahab, and he never forgot what he then saw and heard (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',9,25,26);">2Ki 9:25-26</a>).<P>5. Elijah and Ahaziah:<P>Ahab\'s penitence (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',21,28,29);">1Ki 21:28-29</a>) averted from himself some measure of the doom. His son Ahaziah pulled it down upon his own head. Sick unto death from injuries received in a fall, Ahaziah sent to ask an oracle concerning his recovery at the shrine of Baal-zebub in Ekron. Elijah met the messengers and turned them back with a prediction, not from Baal-zebub but from Yahweh, of impending death. Ahaziah recognized by the messengers\' description the ancient "enemy" of his house. A captain and fifty soldiers sent to arrest the prophet were consumed by fire from heaven at Elijah\'s word. A second captain with another fifty met the same fate. A third besought the prophet to spare his life, and Elijah went with him to the king, but only to repeat the words of doom (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',1,\'1-\');">2Ki 1</a>).<P>6. Elijah Translated:<P>A foreboding, shared by the "sons of the prophets" at Beth-el and Jericho, warned Elijah that the closing scene of his earthly life was at hand. He desired to meet the end, come in what form it might, alone. Elisha, however, bound himself by an oath not to leave his master. Elijah divided Jordan with the stroke of his mantle, that the two might pass over toward the wilderness on the east. Elisha asked that he might receive a firstborn\'s portion of the spirit which rested upon his master. "A chariot of fire, and horses of fire" appeared, and parted the two asunder; "and Elijah went up by a whirlwind into heaven" (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',2,\'1-11\');">2Ki 2:1-11</a>).<P>7. The Letter to Jehoram:<P>In <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',21,\'12-15\');">2Ch 21:12-15</a> we read of a "writing" from Elijah to Jehoram, son of Jehoshaphat, king of Judah. The statements of <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',3,11,12);">2Ki 3:11-12</a> admit of no other interpretation than that the succession of Elisha to independent prophetic work had already occurred in the lifetime of Jehoshaphat. It has been pointed out that the difficult verse, <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',8,16);">2Ki 8:16</a>, appears to mean that Jehoram began to reign at some time before the death of his father; it is also conceivable that Elijah left a message, reduced to writing either before or after his departure, for the future king of Judah who should depart from the true faith.<P>II. The Work of Elijah.<P>One\'s estimate of the importance of the work of Elijah depends upon one\'s conception of the condition of things which the prophet confronted in Northern Israel. While it is true that the reign of Ahab was outwardly prosperous, and the king himself not without a measure of political sagacity together with personal courage, his religious policy at best involved such tolerance of false faiths as could lead only to disaster. Ever since the time of Joshua, the religion of Yahweh had been waging its combat with the old Canaanite worship of the powers of Nature, a worship rendered to local deities, the "Baalim" or "lords" of this and that neighborhood, whose ancient altars stood "upon the high mountains, and upon the hills, and under every green tree" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',12,2);">De 12:2</a>). The god imported from Phoenicia by Jezebel bore also the title Baal; but his character and his worship were worse and more debasing than anything that had before been known. Resistance offered by the servants of Yahweh to the claims of the queen\'s favored god led to persecution, rightly ascribed by the historian to Jezebel (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',18,4);">1Ki 18:4</a>). In the face of this danger, the differences between the worship of Yahweh as carried on in the Northern Kingdom and the same worship as practiced at Jerusalem sank out of sight. The one effort of Elijah was to recall the people from the Tyrian Baal to Yahweh, the God of their fathers. The vitality of the true religion in the crisis is shown by the fidelity of such a man as Obadiah (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',18,3);">1Ki 18:3</a>f), or by the perseverance of a righteous remnant of 7,000, in spite of all that had happened of persecution (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',19,18);">1Ki 19:18</a>). The work begun by Elijah was finished, not without blood, by Jehu; we hear no more of the worship of the Tyrian Baal in Israel after that anointed usurper\'s time (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',9,\'1-\');">2Ki 9</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',10,\'1-\');">10</a>). To say that Elijah at Horeb "learns the gentleness of God" (Strachan in HDB) is to contradict the immediate text of the narrative and the history of the times. The direction given Elijah was that he should anoint one man to seize the throne of Syria, another to seize that of Israel, and a prophet to continue his own work; with the promme and prediction that these three forces should unite in executing upon guilty Israel the judgment still due for its apostasy from Yahweh and its worship of a false god. Elijah was not a reformer of peace; the very vision of peace was hidden from his eyes, reserved for later prophets for whom he could but prepare the way. It was his mission to destroy at whatever cost the heathen worship which else would have destroyed Israel itself, with consequences whose evil we cannot estimate. Amos and Hosea would have had no standing-ground had it not been for the work of Elijah and the influences which at Divine direction he put in operation.<P>III. Character of the Prophet.<P>It is obvious that the Scripture historian does not intend to furnish us with a character-study of the prophet Elijah. Does he furnish even the material upon which such a study may profitably be attempted? The characterization found in <a onClick="return mV(\'Jam\',5,17);">Jas 5:17</a>, "Elijah was a man of like passions (margin, "nature") with us," is brief indeed; but examination of the books which have been written upon the life of Elijah leads to the conclusion that it is possible to err by attaching to events meanings which those events were never intended to bear, as well as by introducing into one\'s study too much of sheer imagination. It is easy, for example, to observe that Elijah is introduced to the reader with suddenness, and that his appearances and disappearances in the narrative seem abrupt; but is one warranted in arguing from this a like abruptness in the prophet\'s character? Is not the sufficient explanation to be reached by observing that the historian\'s purpose was not to give a complete biography of any individual, whether prophet or king, but to display the working of Yahweh upon and with the kingdoms of Israel and Judah through the prophets? Few personal details are therefore to be found recorded concerning even such a prophet as Elijah; and none at all, unless they have a direct bearing upon his message. The imagination of some has discerned a "training of Elijah" in the experiences of the prophet; but to admit that there must have been such a training does not oblige us to discover traces of it in the scenes and incidents which are recorded. Distrusting, for the reasons above suggested, any attempt at a detailed representation of the prophet\'s inner life, one may seek, and prize, what seems to lie upon the surface of the narrative: faith in Yahweh as God of Nature and as covenant God of the patriarchs and their descendants; consuming "zeal" against the false religion which would displace Yahweh from the place which must be His alone; keen vision to perceive hypocrisy and falsehood, and sharp wit to lash them, with the same boldness and disregard of self that must needs mark the true prophet in any age.<P>IV. Miracles in the Elijah Narratives.<P>The miraculous element must be admitted to be prominent in the experiences and works of Elijah. It cannot be estimated apart from the general position which the student finds it possible to hold concerning miracles recorded in the Old Testament. The effort to explain away one or another item in a rationalistic way is wholly unprofitable. Elijah\'s "ravens" may indeed be converted by a change of vowel-points into "Arabians"; but, in spite of the fact that Orientals would bring offerings of food to a holy hermit, the whole tenor of the narrative favors no other supposition than that its writer meant "ravens," and saw in the event another such exercise of the power of Yahweh over all things as was to be seen in the supply of meal and oil for the prophet and the widow of Zarephath, the fire from heaven, the parting of the Jordan, or the ascension of the prophet by whirlwind into heaven. Some modern critics recognize a different and later source in the narrative of <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',1,\'1-\');">2Ki 1</a>; but here again no real difficulty, if any difficulty there be, is removed. The stern prophet who would order the slaughter of the 450 Baal prophets might well call down fire to consume the soldiers of an apostate and a hostile king. The purpose and meaning of the Elijah chapters is to be grasped by those who accept their author\'s conception of Yahweh, of His power, and of His work in Nature and with men, rather than by those who seek to replace that conception by another.<P>V. Elijah in the New Testament.<P>Malachi (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mal\',4,5);">4:5</a>) names Elijah as the forerunner of "the great and terrible day of Yahweh," and the expectation founded upon this passage is alluded to in <a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',6,15);">Mr 6:15</a> parallel <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',9,8);">Lu 9:8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',16,14);">Mt 16:14</a> parallel <a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',8,28);">Mr 8:28</a> parallel <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',9,19);">Lu 9:19</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',27,\'47-49\');">Mt 27:47-49</a> parallel <a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',15,35,36);">Mr 15:35-36</a>. The interpretation of Malachi\'s prophecy foreshadowed in the angelic annunciation to Zacharias (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',1,17);">Lu 1:17</a>), that John the Baptist should do the work of another Elijah, is given on the authority of Jesus Himself (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',11,14);">Mt 11:14</a>). The appearance of Elijah, with Moses, on the Mount of Transfiguration, is recorded in <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',17,\'1-13\');">Mt 17:1-13</a> parallel <a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',9,\'2-13\');">Mr 9:2-13</a> parallel <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',9,\'28-36\');">Lu 9:28-36</a>, and in <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',11,14);">Mt 11:14</a> parallel <a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',9,13);">Mr 9:13</a> Jesus again identifies the Elijah of Malachi with John the Baptist. The fate of the soldiers of Ahaziah (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',1,\'1-\');">2Ki 1</a>) is in the mind of James and John on one occasion (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',9,54);">Lu 9:54</a>). Jesus Himself alludes to Elijah and his sojourn in the land of Sidon (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',4,25,26);">Lu 4:25-26</a>). Paul makes use of the prophet\'s experience at Horeb (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',11,\'2-4\');">Ro 11:2-4</a>). In <a onClick="return mV(\'Jam\',5,17,18);">Jas 5:17-18</a> the work of Elijah affords an instance of the powerful supplication of a righteous man.<P>(2) A "head of a father\'s house" of the tribe of Benjamin (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',8,27);">1Ch 8:27</a>, the King James Version "Eliah").<P>(3) A man of priestly rank who had married a foreign wife (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ezr\',10,21);">Ezr 10:21</a>).<P>(4) A layman who had married a foreign wife <a onClick="return mV(\'Ezr\',10,26);">Ezr 10:26</a>.<P>LITERATURE.<P>The histories of Israel and commentaries on Kings are many. Those which tend to rationalizing tend also to decrease the importance of Elijah to the history. F. W. Robertson, Sermons, 2nd series, V; Maurice, Prophets and Kings of the Old Testament, Sermon VIII; Milligan, Elijah ("Men of the Bible" series); W. M. Taylor, Elijah the Prophet.``57';
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isbe[2993]='Elika`e-li\'-ka (\'eliqa\', "God is rejector(?)"):<P>The Harodite (Uradite), one of David\'s guard, the "thirty" (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',23,25);">2Sa 23:25</a>).<P>Omitted from <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',11,27);">1Ch 11:27</a>.``1';
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isbe[2994]='Elim`e\'-lim (\'elim, "terebinths"; Aileim):<P>The second encampment of the Israelites after crossing the Red Sea. It was a contrast to the previous camp called "Marah" because of the bitterness of the waters, for there "were twelve springs of water, and threescore and ten palm trees" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',15,27);">Ex 15:27</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',16,1);">16:1</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',33,9);">Nu 33:9</a>f). The traditional site is an oasis in Wady Ghurundel, circa 63 miles from Suez.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=EXODUS">EXODUS</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=WANDERINGS+OF+ISRAEL">WANDERINGS OF ISRAEL</a>`1';
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isbe[2995]='Elimelech`e-lim\'-e-lek (\'elimelekh, "my God is king"; Abeimelech, Alimelek):<P>Elimelech was a member of the tribe of Judah, a native of Bethlehem Judah, a man of wealth and probably head of a family or clan (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rth\',1,2,3);">Ru 1:2-3</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rth\',2,1,3);">2:1, 3</a>). He lived during the period of the Judges, had a hereditary possession near Bethlehem, and is chiefly known as the husband of Naomi, the mother-in-law of Ruth and ancestress of David the king. Because of a severe famine in Judea, he emigrated to the land of Moab with his wife and his sons, Mahlon and Chilion. Not long afterward he died, and his two sons married Moabite women, Ruth and Orpah. Ten years in all were spent in Moab, when the two sons died, and the three widows were left. Soon afterward Naomi decided to return to Judah, and the sequel is told in the Book of Ruth.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=RUTH">RUTH</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=NAOMI">NAOMI</a>`146';
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isbe[2996]='Elioenai`e-li-o-e\'-na-i.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ELIEHOENAI">ELIEHOENAI</a>`1';
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isbe[2997]='Elionas`el-i-o\'-nas (Elionas, Elionais): The name of two men who had married foreign wives (1Esdras 9:22,23), corresponding respectively to "Elioenai" and "Eliezer" in <a onClick="return mV(\'Ezr\',10,22,31);">Ezr 10:22, 31</a>.``1';
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isbe[2998]='Eliphal`e-li\'-fal, el\'-i-fal (\'eliphal, "God has judged"):<P>Son of Ur, one of the mighty men of David\'s armies (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',11,35);">1Ch 11:35</a>). the Revised Version (British and American) in a footnote identifies him with Eliphelet, son of Ahasbai, the son of the Maachathite (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',23,34);">2Sa 23:34</a>; cf Davis, Dict. of the Bible, under the word "Ur"). See also <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',14,5,7);">1Ch 14:5, 7</a>.``1';
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isbe[2999]='Eliphalat`e-lif\'-a-lat (Eliphalet; 1Esdras 8:39; 9:33):<P>Called "Eliphelet" in <a onClick="return mV(\'Ezr\',8,13);">Ezr 8:13</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Ezr\',10,33);">10:33</a>.``1';
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isbe[3000]='Eliphaz (1)`el\'-i-faz, e-li\'-faz (\'eliphaz, "God is fine gold" (?)):<P>(1) Son of Esau by Adah, and father of Teman, Kenaz and Amalek (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',36,4,10);">Ge 36:4, 10</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',1,35);">1Ch 1:35</a>f).`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ELIPHAZ+2">ELIPHAZ 2</a>`1';
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