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isbe[2801]='Drawer of Water`dro\'-er, (sho\'ebh mayim, from sha\'abh, "to bale up" water): In Syria and Palestine, outside of Mt. Lebanon and the Anti-Lebanon, the springs of water are scarce and the inhabitants of these less favored places have always depended upon wells and cisterns for their water supply. This necessitates some device for drawing the water. In the case of a cistern or shallow well, an earthenware water jar or a bucket made of tanned goats\' skin is lowered into the water by a rope and then raised by pulling up the rope hand over hand (probably the ancient method), or by running the rope over a crude pulley fixed directly over the cistern or well. In the case of deep wells, the rope, attached to a larger bucket, is run over a pulley so that the water may be raised by the drawers walking away from the well as they pull the rope. Frequently animals are hitched to the rope to do the pulling.<P>In some districts where the water level is not too deep, a flight of steps leading down to the water\'s edge is constructed in addition to the opening vertically above the water. Such a well is pointed out near Haran in Mesopotamia as the one from which Rebekah drew water for Abraham\'s servant. In <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',24,16);">Ge 24:16</a> we read that Rebekah "went down to the fountain, and filled her pitcher, and came up."<P>The deep grooves in their curbs, worn by the ropes as the water was being raised, attest to the antiquity of many of the wells of Palestine and Syria. Any one of the hundreds of grooves around a single well was many years in being formed. The fact that the present method of drawing water from these wells is not making these grooves, shows that they are the work of former times.<P>The drawing of water was considered the work of women or of men unfit for other service (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',24,11,13,43);">Ge 24:11, 13, 43</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',9,11);">1Sa 9:11</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',4,7);">Joh 4:7</a>). In Syria, today, a girl servant willingly goes to draw the daily supply of water, but seldom is it possible to persuade a boy or man to perform this service. When the well or fountain is at a distance, or much water is needed, tanned skins or earthen jars are filled and transported on the backs of men or donkeys.<P>Water drawing was usually done at evening time (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',24,11);">Ge 24:11</a>), and this custom has remained unchanged. There is no sight more interesting than the daily concourse at a Syrian water source. It is bound to remind one of the Bible stories where the setting is a wellside (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',24,\'1-\');">Ge 24</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',4,\'1-\');">Joh 4</a>).<P>The service of water drawing was associated, in early times, with that of hewer of wood (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',29,11);">De 29:11</a>). Joshua made the Gibeonites hewers of wood and drawers of water in exchange for their lives (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',9,21,23,27);">Jos 9:21, 23, 27</a>). The inhabitants of Nineveh were exhorted to draw water and fill the cisterns of their fortresses in preparation for a siege (<a onClick="return mV(\'Nah\',3,14);">Na 3:14</a>).<P>Figurative: Water drawing is mentioned in the metaphor of <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',12,3);">Isa 12:3</a>, "Ye draw water out of the wells of salvation."``133';
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isbe[2802]='Dream; Dreamer`drem, drem\'-er (chalom, chelem; onar): In all time dreams and their interpretation have been the occasion of much curious and speculative inquiry. Because of the mystery by which they have been enshrouded, and growing out of a natural curiosity to know the future, much significance has been attached to them by people especially of the lower stages of culture. Even the cultured are not without a superstitious awe and dread of dreams, attaching to them different interpretations according to local color and custom.<P>Naturally enough, as with all other normal and natural phenomena for which men could assign no scientific and rational explanation, they would be looked upon with a certain degree of superstitious fear. "Dreams, Which are the children of an idle brain, Begot of nothing but vain fantasy, Which is as thin of substance as the air And more inconstant than the wind." <20>Shakespeare.<P>1. Physiological and Psychological Ground:<P>While a fully satisfactory theory of dreams has not yet been established and while it is hardly possible that there will ever be a satisfactory explanation for each individual dream, yet through the rapid discoveries of physiological psychology in the recent decade or more, much new light is thrown on the subject. With the contribution modern psychology has made to our knowledge of the association of ideas through the connected relation of certain cortical centers and areas, it has come to be pretty well established that the excitation of certain bodily organs or surfaces will stimulate certain brain areas. Conversely the stimulation of certain cortical areas will produce a response in certain bodily regions over which these centers or areas preside.<P>Connecting thought processes are therefore dependent upon the proper correlation of ideas through what are known physiologically as the association centers. If then it comes to pass that, as occurs in dreams, only fragmentary ideas or loosely connected trains of thought occur, and if, as frequently happens, there is momentary connection, but little connection with normal waking experience, it will easily be seen that the excitation of certain centers will awaken certain trains of thought which are but poorly related to the balance of one\'s thinking processes. Much is being said about the dissociation of ideas and the disturbance of personality of which dreams are one of several forms. Others are hallucinations, trances, visions, etc.<P>Dreams are abnormal and sometimes pathological. Sleep is a normal experience. Perfect and natural sleep should be without dreams of any conscious occurrence. Perhaps psychologically there can be no such thing as perfectly dreamless sleep. Such a condition would probably be death itself. Nature doubtless has her silent vigils, keeping watch in the chambers of the soul during the deepest sleep. The only difference is that they do not come to the threshold of consciousness. Thus, dreams are to the sleeping state what visions and hallucinations are to the waking state, and like them have their ground in a distorted image-making function. While the source of the materials and the excitant may not be the same in each case, yet functionally they are the same.<P>The stimuli of dreams may be of two kinds. First, they may be physical and objective, or they may be due to suggestions and the association of ideas. They may be due to some physical disorder, such as imperfect digestion or circulation, improper ventilation or heating, or an uncomfortable position. Since by the very nature of the case dreams do not occur in a conscious state, the real cause cannot easily be discoverable and then only after the subject is entirely awakened through the effects of it.<P>They may also be due to the association of ideas. Suggestion plays a large part. The vividness and recency of a conscious impression during the waking state may be thrown up from the subconscious region during the sleeping hours. The usual distorted aspect of dreams is doubtless due to the uncoupling of groups of ideas through the uncoupling of the cortical association areas, some of them being less susceptible than others to the existing stimulus.<P>The materials of dreams need not be recent; they may have been furnished by the conscious processes a long time before, but are brought to the threshold only by means of some train of ideas during a semi-conscious state. It is interesting to note that while time and space seem quite real in dreams, the amount covered in a single dream may occupy but a moment of time for the dreamer.<P>2. History of Belief in Dreams:<P>Dreams have always played an important part in the literature and religion of all peoples. They have furnished mythologies; they have been the sources of systems of necromancy; they have become both the source and the explanation of otherwise inexplicable acts of Providence. Growing out of them we have a theory of nightmares and demonology. They have become the working material of the prophet both Biblical and pagan. Medieval civilization is not without its lasting effects of dreams, and modern civilization still clings with something of reverence to the unsolved mystery of certain dreams. While we have almost emerged from anything like a slavish adherence to a superstitious belief in dreams, we must still admit the possibility of the profound significance of dreams in the impressions they make upon the subject.<P>3. Dreams in the Old Testament:<P>The Bible, contrary to a notion perhaps too commonly held, attaches relatively little religious significance to dreams. Occasionally, however, reference is made to communications from God through dreams (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',20,6);">Ge 20:6</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',3,5);">1Ki 3:5</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',1,20);">Mt 1:20</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',2,12,13,19,22);">2:12-13, 19, 22</a>). It recognizes their human relations more frequently. In the Old Testament literature, dreams play but little part except in the Books of Genesis and Daniel, in which there are abundant references to them. For their moral bearings the most important ones perhaps are those referred to in <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',37,\'5-10\');">Ge 37:5-10</a>. An uncritical attitude will give to them a lifeless and mechanical interpretation. A sympathetic and rational explanation gives them beauty, naturalness and significance. Joseph was the youngest and most beloved son of Jacob. He was just in the prime of adolescence, the very period of day dreaming. He was perhaps inordinately ambitious. This was doubtless heightened by the attentions of a doting father. The most natural dream would be that suggested by his usual waking state, which was one of ambition and perhaps unhealthy rivalry (see <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ASTRONOMY">ASTRONOMY, sec. II, 6</a>). The source of Pharaoh\'s dreams and his solicitude are likewise capable of interpretation on somewhat natural grounds (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',41,\'7-32\');">Ge 41:7-32</a>). The significance of them was given by Joseph.<P>Another illustration of the psychological exposition preceding is the dream of Solomon (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',3,5,\'11-15\');">1Ki 3:5, 11-15</a>). In this narrative, after Solomon had done what pleased Yahweh and had offered a most humble prayer on an occasion which to him was a great crisis and at the same time a moment of great ecstasy in his life, he doubtless experiences a feeling of sweet peace in consequence of it. His sleep would naturally be somewhat disturbed by the excitement of the day. The dream was suggested by the associations and naturally enough was the approving voice of Yahweh.<P>Dreaming and the prophetic function seem to have been closely associated (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',13,1,3,5);">De 13:1, 3, 5</a>). Whether from a coldly mechanical and superstitious, a miraculous, or a perfectly natural point of view, this relation is consistent. The prophet must be a seer, a man of visions and ideals. As such he would be subject, as in his waking states, so in his sleeping states, to extraordinary experiences. The remarkable dreams of Nebuchadnezzar, who stands out as an exceptional example, afford an illustration of what may be styled a disturbed personality (<a onClick="return mV(\'Dan\',2,\'3-45\');">Da 2:3-45</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Dan\',4,\'5-19\');">4:5-19</a>). The effort made by the magicians, the enchanters, the Chaldeans, and the soothsayers, according to the best skill of the Orientals, was unavailing. Daniel, whether by extraordinary intellectual insight or by Divine communication, was able by his interpretation and its moral to set before the king a powerful lesson.<P>The New Testament gives still less place and importance to dreams than the Old Testament. There are only six references and one citation to dreams or dreamers. It is significant that all these references are by Matthew, and still more significant that Jesus nowhere refers to dreams, evidently attaching little if any importance to them. The references in Matthew are confined entirely to warnings and announcements (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',1,20);">Mt 1:20</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',2,12,13,19,22);">2:12-13, 19, 22</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',27,19);">27:19</a>). Once a citation (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',2,17);">Ac 2:17</a>) is used for illustrative purposes (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Joe\',2,28);">Joe 2:28</a>). See also <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=AUGURY">AUGURY, IV, 5</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=DIVINATION">DIVINATION, VI,1,l(b)</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=MAGIC">MAGIC</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=REVELATION">REVELATION</a>.<P>Whether God communicates directly or indirectly by dreams is still unsettled. With our present knowledge of spirit communication it would not seem unreasonable to assume that He may reveal Himself directly; and yet on the other hand the safest and perhaps surest explanation for our own day and experience is that in dream states the mind is more impressionable and responsive to natural causes through which God speaks and operates. That dreams have been and are valuable means of shaping men\'s thoughts and careers cannot be denied, and as such, have played an important part in the social and moral life of individuals and of society. A valuable modern illustration of this is the dream of Adoniram Judson Gordon (see How Christ Came to Church), through the influence of which his entire religious life and that of his church were completely transformed.<P>LITERATURE.<P>Judd, Psychology; Cutten, The Psychological Phenomena of Christianity; Ladd, Philosophy of Knowledge; Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology; Ellis, The World of Dreams (Houghton, Mifflin Co.).``25';
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isbe[2803]='Dredge`drej: A mixture of oats and barley (<a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',24,6);">Job 24:6</a> the King James Version margin; the King James Version "corn"; the Revised Version (British and American) "provender"). The Hebrew word is belil, usually "mixed grain," ZDMG, XLVIII, 236: grain not ground and boiled in water. Compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',6,5);">Job 6:5</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',30,24);">Isa 30:24</a>.``1';
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isbe[2804]='Dregs`dregs: The "sediments," "lees," "grounds of liquor"; only in plural. In the King James Version it stands for:<P>(1) Hebrew qubba\'ath, "bowl," "chalice," found only in <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',51,17,22);">Isa 51:17, 22</a>: "the dregs of the cup of trembling"; "the dregs of the cup of my fury." the Revised Version (British and American) correctly changes "dregs" into "bowl."<P>(2) Hebrew shemarim, "sediments" or "dregs," especially lees of wine. "The dregs thereof, all the wicked of the earth shall wring (the American Standard Revised Version "drain") them out and drink them" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',75,8);">Ps 75:8</a>), i.e. God gives to the wicked the cup of wrathful judgment, which they must drink to the last drop.``1';
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isbe[2805]='Dress`In the Hebrew and Greek there is a wonderful wealth of terminology having to do with the general subject of dress among the ancient Orientals. This is reflected in the numerous synonyms for "dress" to be found in English Versions of the Bible, "apparel," "attire," "clothes," "raiment," "garments," etc. But the words used in the originals are often greatly obscured through the inconsistent variations of the translators. Besides there are few indications even in the original Hebrew or Greek of the exact shape or specific materials of the various articles of dress named, and so their identification is made doubly difficult. In dealing with the subject, therefore, the most reliable sources of information, apart from the meaning of the terms used in characterization, are certain well-known facts about the costumes and dress-customs of the orthodox Jews, and others about the forms of dress worn today by the people of simple life and primitive habits in modern Palestine. Thanks to the ultraconservatism and unchanging usages of the nearer East, this is no mean help. In the endeavor to discover, distinguish and deal with the various oriental garments, then, we will consider:<P>1. The Meaning of Terms;<P>2. The Materials;<P>3. The Outer Garments;<P>4. The Inner Garments;<P>5. The Headdress;<P>6. The Foot-gear;<P>7. The Dress of Jesus and His Disciples.<hr /><P>1. Meaning of Terms:<P>There was originally a sharp distinction between classical and oriental costume, but this was palpably lessened under the cosmopolitanism of the Roman Empire. This of course had its effect both in the modification of the fashions of the day and upon the words used for articles of clothing in the New Testament.<P>(1) The terms most used for clothes in general were, in the Old Testament, cadhin, simlah, salmah, and in the New Testament himation (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',21,7);">Mt 21:7</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',24,18);">24:18</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',26,65);">26:65</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',8,27);">Lu 8:27</a>) and enduma (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',22,11);">Mt 22:11</a>f; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',7,15);">Mt 7:15</a>), plural, though the oldest and most widely distributed article of human apparel was probably the "loin-cloth" (Hebrew \'ezor), entirely different from "girdle" (Greek zone). Biblical references for clothes are nearly all to the costume of the males, owing doubtless to the fact that the garments ordinarily used indoors were worn alike by men and women.<P>(2) The three normal body garments, the ones most mentioned in the Scriptures, are cadjin, a rather long "under garment" provided with sleeves; kethoneth (Greek chiton), a long-sleeved tunic worn over the cadhin, likewise a shirt with sleeves (see Masterman, DCG, article "Dress"); and simlah (Greek himation), the cloak of the King James Version and the Revised Version (British and American), used in the plural for "garments" in general; and the "girdle" (Greek zone; Arabic zunnar). The "headdress" (two types are now in use, the "turban" and the "kufiyeh") is never definitely named in the Bible, though we know it was the universal custom among ancient Orientals to cover the head.<P>(3) The simlah (Greek himation) signifies an "outer garment" (see below), a "mantle," or "cloak" (see lexicons). A kindred word in the Greek himatismos, (translated "raiment" in <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',9,29);">Lu 9:29</a>, "garments" in <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',27,35);">Mt 27:35</a>, and "vesture" in <a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',19,24);">Joh 19:24</a>) stands in antithesis to himation. The Greek chiton, Hebrew kethoneth, the "under garment," is translated "coat" in <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',5,40);">Mt 5:40</a>, "clothes" in <a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',14,63);">Mr 14:63</a>. The Hebrew word me\'il, Greek stole, Latin stola, stands for a variety of garment used only by men of rank or of the priestly order, rendered the Revised Version (British and American) "robe." It stands for the long garments of the scribes rendered "long robes" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',12,38);">Mr 12:38</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',20,46);">Lu 20:46</a>) and "best robe" in the story of the Prodigal Son (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',15,22);">Lu 15:22</a>). (For difference between me\'il and simlah, see Kennedy, one-vol HDB, 197.) Oriental influences led to the adoption of the long tunic in Rome, and in Cicero\'s time it was a mark of effeminacy. It came to be known in its white form as tunica alba, or "white tunic," afterward in English "alb."<P>Other New Testament terms are porphuran, the "purple" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',16,19);">Lu 16:19</a>); the purple robe of Jesus is called himation in <a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',19,2);">Joh 19:2</a>; lention, "the towel" with which Jesus girded himself (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',13,4,5);">13:4-5</a>); then othonion, "linen cloth" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',24,12);">Lu 24:12</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',19,40);">Joh 19:40</a>); sindon, "linen cloth" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',27,59);">Mt 27:59</a>); and bussos, "fine linen" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',16,19);">Lu 16:19</a>).<P>The primitive "aprons" of <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',3,7);">Ge 3:7</a>, made of "sewed fig-leaves," were quite different from the "aprons" brought to the apostles in <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',19,12);">Ac 19:12</a>. The latter were of a species known among the Romans as semicinctium, a short "waist-cloth" worn especially by slaves (Rich, Dict. of Roman and Greek Antiq.).<P>2. The Materials:<P>Anthropology, Scripture and archaeology all witness to the use by primitive man of skins of animals as dress material (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',3,21);">Ge 3:21</a>, "coats of skin"; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Hbr\',11,37);">Heb 11:37</a>, "went about in sheepskins, in goatskins").<P>Even today the traveler will occasionally see in Palestine a shepherd clad in "a coat of skin." Then, as now, goat\'s hair and camel\'s hair supplied the materials for the coarser fabrics of the poor. John the Baptist had his raiment, enduma, of camel\'s hair (literally, "of camel\'s hairs," <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',3,4);">Mt 3:4</a>). This was a coarse cloth made by weaving camel\'s hairs. There is no evidence that coats of camel\'s skin, like those made of goat\'s skin or sheep\'s skin have ever been worn in the East, as imagined by painters (see Meyer, Bleek, Weiss and Broadus; but compare HDB, article "Camel"). The favorite materials, however, in Palestine, as throughout the Orient, in ancient times, were wool (see <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',27,26);">Pr 27:26</a>, "The lambs are for thy clothing") and flax (see <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',31,13);">Pr 31:13</a>, where it is said of the ideal woman of King Lemuel, "She seeketh wool and flax, and worketh willingly with her hands"). The finest quality of ancient "linen" seems to have been the product of Egypt (see <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=LINEN">LINEN</a>). The "silk" of <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',31,22);">Pr 31:22</a> the King James Version is really "fine linen," as in the Revised Version (British and American). The first certain mention of "silk" in the Bible, it is now conceded, is in <a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',18,12);">Re 18:12</a>, as the word rendered "silk" in <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',16,10,13);">Eze 16:10, 13</a> is of doubtful meaning.<P>3. The Outer Garments:<P>(1) We may well begin here with the familiar saying of Jesus for a basal distinction: "If any man would go to law with thee, and take away thy coat (Greek chiton), let him have thy cloak (himation) also" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',5,40);">Mt 5:40</a>). Here the "coat" (Hebrew kethoneth) was the ordinary "inner garment" worn by the Jew of the day, in which he did the work of the day (see <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',24,18);">Mt 24:18</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',13,16);">Mr 13:16</a>). It resembled the Roman "tunic," corresponding most nearly to our "long shirt," reaching below the knees always, and, in case it was designed for dress occasions, reaching almost to the ground. Sometimes "two coats" were worn (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',3,11);">Lu 3:11</a>; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',10,10);">Mt 10:10</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',6,9);">Mr 6:9</a>), but in general only one. It was this garment of Jesus that is said by John (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',19,23);">Joh 19:23</a>) to have been "without seam, woven from the top throughout."<P>(2) The word himation, here rendered "cloak," denotes the well-known "outer garment" of the Jews (see <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',9,20,21);">Mt 9:20-21</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',14,36);">14:36</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',21,7-8);">21:7-8</a>; but compare also <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',9,16);">Mt 9:16</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',17,2);">17:2</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',24,18);">24:18</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',26,65);">26:65</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',27,31,35);">27:31, 35</a>). It appears in some cases to have been a loose robe, but in most others, certainly, it was a large square piece of cloth, like a modern shawl, which could be wrapped around the person, with more or less taste and comfort. Now these two, with the "girdle" (a necessary and almost universal article of oriental dress), were commonly all the garments worn by the ordinary man of the Orient. The "outer garment" was frequently used by the poor and by the traveler as his only covering at night, just as shawls are used among us now.<P>(3) The common Hebrew name for this "outer garment" in the Old Testament is as above, simlah or salmah. In most cases it was of "wool," though sometimes of "linen," and was as a rule certainly the counterpart of the himation of the Greek (this is its name throughout the New Testament). It answered, too, to the pallium of the Romans. It belonged, like them, not to the endumata, or garments "put on," but to the periblemata, or garments "wrapped, around" the body. It was concerning this "cloak" that the Law of Moses provided that, if it were taken in pawn, it should be returned before sunset<65>"for that is his only covering, it is his raiment for his skin: wherein shall he sleep?....for I am gracious" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',22,27);">Ex 22:27</a>). The Jewish tribunals would naturally, therefore, allow the "inner garment" to be taken by legal process, rather than the outer one (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',5,40);">Mt 5:40</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',6,29);">Lu 6:29</a>); but Jesus virtually teaches that rather than have difficulty or indulge animosity one would better yield one\'s rights in this, as in other matters; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',6,7);">1Co 6:7</a>.<P>Some identify the simlah of the ancient Hebrews with modern aba, the coarse blouse or overcoat worn today by the Syrian peasant (Nowack, Benzinger, Mackie in HDB); but the distinction between these two garments of the Jews, so clearly made in the New Testament, seems to confirm the conclusion otherwise reached, that this Jewish "outer garment" closely resembled, if it was not identical with, the himation of the Greeks (see Jewish Encyclopedia, article "Cloke" and 1-vol HDB, "Dress," 197; but compare Masterman, DCG, article "Dress," 499, and Dearmer, DCG, article "Cloke"). In no respect has the variety of renderings in our English Versions of the Bible done more to conceal from English readers the meaning of the original than in the case of this word simlah. For instance it is the "garment" with which Noah\'s nakedness was covered (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',9,23);">Ge 9:23</a>); the "clothes" in which the Hebrews bound up, their kneading-troughs (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',12,34);">Ex 12:34</a>); the "garment" of Gideon in <a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',8,25);">Jud 8:25</a>; the "raiment" of Ruth (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rut\',3,3);">3:3</a>); just as the himation of the New Testament is the "cloak" of <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',5,40);">Mt 5:40</a>, the "clothes" of <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',24,18);">Mt 24:18</a> the King James Version (the Revised Version (British and American) "cloak"), the "garment" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',13,16);">Mr 13:16</a> the King James Version, the Revised Version (British and American) "cloak").<P>4. The Under Garments:<P>(1) In considering the under garments, contrary to the impression made by English Versions of the Bible, we must begin with the "loin-cloth" (Hebrew \'ezor), which unlike the "girdle" (see <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=GIRDLE">GIRDLE</a>), was always worn next to the skin. The figurative use made of it in <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',11,5);">Isa 11:5</a>, and <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',13,11);">Jer 13:11</a>, e. g. will be lost unless this is remembered. Often it was the only "under garment," as with certain of the prophets (Elijah, <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',1,8);">2Ki 1:8</a>; compare John the Baptist, <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',3,4);">Mt 3:4</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',20,2);">Isa 20:2</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',13,1);">Jer 13:1</a>ff). In later times it was displaced among the Hebrews by the "shirt" or "tunic". The universal "sign of mourning" was the girding of the waist with an \'ezor or "hair-cloth" (English Versions, "sack-cloth"). A "loincloth" of "linen" was worn by the priests of early times and bore the special name of \'ephodh (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',2,18);">1Sa 2:18</a>; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',6,14);">2Sa 6:14</a>ff).<P>(2) The ordinary "under garment," later worn by all classes<65>certain special occasions and individuals being exceptions<6E>was the "shirt" (Hebrew kethoneth) which, as we have seen, reappears as chiton in Greek, and tunica in Latin It is uniformly rendered "coat" in English Versions of the Bible, except that the Revised Version, margin has "tunic" in <a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',19,23);">Joh 19:23</a>. The well-known piece of Assyrian sculpture, representing the siege and capture of Lachish by Sennacherib, shows the Jewish captives, male and female, dressed in a moderately tight garment, fitting close to the neck (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',30,18);">Job 30:18</a>) and reaching almost to the ankles; which must represent the kethoneth, or kuttoneth of the period, as worn in towns at least. Probably the kuttoneth of the peasantry was both looser and shorter, resembling more the modern kamis of the Syrian fellah (compare Latin camisa, and English "chemise").<P>(3) As regards sleeves, they are not expressly mentioned in the Old Testament, but the Lachish tunics mentioned above have short sleeves, reaching half-way to the elbows. This probably represents the prevailing type of sleeve among the Hebrews of the earlier period. An early Egyptian picture of a group of Semitic traders (circa 2000 BC) shows a colored tunic without sleeves, which, fastened on the left shoulder, left the right bare. Another variety of sleeves, restricted to the upper and wealthy classes, had long and wide sleeves reaching to the ground. This was the tunic worn by Tamar, the royal princess (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',13,18);">2Sa 13:18</a>, "A garment of divers colors upon her; for with such robes were the king\'s daughters that were virgins appareled"), "the tunic of (i.e. reaching to) palms and soles" worn by Joseph, familiarly known as the "coat of many colors" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',37,3);">Ge 37:3</a>), a rendering which represents now an abandoned tradition (compare Kennedy, HDB). The long white linen tunic, which was the chief garment of the ordinary Jewish priest of the later period, had sleeves, which, for special reasons, were tied to the arms (compare Josephus, Ant., III, vii, 2).<P>(4) Ultimately it became usual, even with the people of the lower ranks, to wear an under "tunic," or "real shirt" (Josephus, Ant., XVII, vi, 7; Mishna, passim, where it is called chaluq). In this case the upper tunic, the kuttoneth proper, would be removed at night (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Sgs\',5,3);">So 5:3</a>, "I have put off my garment").<P>The material for the tunic might be either<P>(1) woven on the loom in two pieces, and afterward put together without cutting (compare Dict. of Roman and Greek Antiq., article "Tunica"), or<P>(2) the garment might be woven whole on a special loom, "without seam," i.e. so as to require no sewing, as we know from the description given in <a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',19,23);">Joh 19:23</a>, and from other sources, was the chiton worn by our Lord just before His crucifixion. The garments intended by the Hebrew (<a onClick="return mV(\'Dan\',3,\'21-27\');">Da 3:21-27</a>), rendered "coats" the King James Version, have not been certainly made out. The King James Version margin has "mantles" the English Revised Version "hosen" the American Standard Revised Version "breeches" (see <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=HOSEN">HOSEN</a>). For "coat of mail" (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',17,5);">1Sa 17:5</a>) see <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ARMOR">ARMOR</a>.<P>5. The Headdress:<P>When the Hebrews first emerged into view, they seem to have had no covering for the head except on special demand, as in case of war, when a leather-helmet was worn (see <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ARMOR">ARMOR</a>). Ordinarily, as with the fellah of Palestine today, a rope or cord served as a fillet (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',20,32);">1Ki 20:32</a>, and Virgil, Aeneid (Dryden), iv.213: "A golden fillet binds his awful brows"). Such "fillets" may be seen surviving in the representation of Syrians on the monuments of Egypt. Naturally, in the course of time, exposure to the Syrian sun in the tropical summer time would compel recourse to some such covering as the modern kufiyeh, which lets in the breeze, but protects in a graceful, easy way, the head, the neck and the shoulders. The headgear of Ben-hadad\'s tribute carriers (see above) resembles the Phrygian cap.<P>The head covering, however, which is best attested, at least for the upper ranks of both sexes, is the turban (Hebrew tsaniph, from a root meaning to "wind round"). It is the ladies\' "hood" of <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',3,23);">Isa 3:23</a>, the Revised Version (British and American) "turban"; the "royal diadem" of <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',62,3);">Isa 62:3</a>, and the "mitre" of <a onClick="return mV(\'Zec\',3,5);">Zec 3:5</a>, the Revised Version, margin "turban" or "diadem." Ezekiel\'s description of a lady\'s headdress: "I bound thee with attire of fine linen" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',16,10);">Eze 16:10</a> margin), points to a turban. For the egg-shaped turban of the priests see <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=BONNET">BONNET</a> (the Revised Version (British and American) "head-tires"). The hats of <a onClick="return mV(\'Dan\',3,21);">Da 3:21</a> (the Revised Version (British and American) "mantles") are thought by some to have been the conical Babylonian headdress seen on the monuments. According to 2Macc 4:12 the Revised Version (British and American) the young Jewish nobles were compelled by Antiochus Epiphanes to wear the petasos, the low, broad-brimmed hat associated with Hermes. Other forms of headdress were in use in New Testament times, as we learn from the Mishna, as well as from the New Testament, e. g. the suddar (soudarion) from Latin sudarium (a cloth for wiping off perspiration, sudor) which is probably the "napkin" of <a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',11,44);">Joh 11:44</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',20,7);">20:7</a>, although there it appears as a kerchief, or covering, for the head. The female captives from Lachish (see above) wear over their tunics an upper garment, which covers the forehead and falls down over the shoulders to the ankles. Whether this is the garment intended by the Hebrew in <a onClick="return mV(\'Rth\',3,15);">Ru 3:15</a>, rendered "vail" by the King James Version and "mantle" by the Revised Version (British and American), and "kerchiefs for the head" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',13,18);">Eze 13:18</a> the Revised Version (British and American)), we cannot say. The "veil" with which Rebekah and Tamar "covered themselves" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',24,65);">Ge 24:65</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',38,14);">38:14</a>) was most likely a large "mantle" in which the whole body could be wrapped, like the cadhin (see above). But it seems impossible to draw a clear distinction between "mantle" and "veil" in the Old Testament (Kennedy). The case of Moses (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',34,33);">Ex 34:33</a>) gives us the only express mention of a "face-veil."<P>6. Footgear:<P>The ancient Hebrews, like Orientals in general, went barefoot within doors. Out of doors they usually wore sandals, less frequently shoes. The simplest form of sandal then, as now, consisted of a sole of untanned leather, bound to the foot by a leather thong, the shoe-latchet of <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',14,23);">Ge 14:23</a> and the latchet of <a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',1,7);">Mr 1:7</a>, etc. In the obelisk of Shalmaneser, however, Jehu\'s attendants are distinguished by shoes completely covering the feet, from the Assyrians, who are represented as wearing sandals fitted with a heel-cap. Ladies of Ezekiel\'s day wore shoes of "sealskin" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',16,10);">Eze 16:10</a> the Revised Version (British and American)). The soldiers\' "laced boot" may be intended in <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',9,5);">Isa 9:5</a> (the Revised Version (British and American), margin). Then, as now, on entering the house of a friend, or a sacred precinct (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',3,5);">Ex 3:5</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',5,15);">Jos 5:15</a>), or in case of mourning (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',15,30);">2Sa 15:30</a>), the sandals, or shoes, were removed. The priests performed their offices in the Temple in bare feet (compare the modern requirement on entering a mosque).<P>7. The Dress of Jesus and His Disciples:<P>In general we may say that the clothes worn by Christ and His disciples were of the simplest and least sumptuous kinds. A special interest must attach even to the clothes that Jesus wore. These consisted, it seems quite certain, not of just five separate articles (see Edersheim, LTJM, I, 625), but of six. In His day it had become customary to wear a linen shirt (chaluq) beneath the tunic (see above). That our Lord wore such a "shirt" seems clear from the mention of the laying aside of the upper garments (himatia, plural), i.e. the "mantle" and the "tunic," before washing His disciples\' feet (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',13,4);">Joh 13:4</a>). The tunic proper worn by Him, as we have seen, was "woven without seam" throughout, and was of the kind, therefore, that fitted closely about the neck, and had short sleeves. Above the tunic would naturally be the linen girdle, wound several times about the waist. On His feet were leather sandals (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',3,11);">Mt 3:11</a>). His upper garment was of the customary sort and shape, probably of white woolen cloth, as is suggested by the details of the account of the Transfiguration (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',9,3);">Mr 9:3</a>), with the four prescribed "tassels" at the corners. As to His headdress, we have no description of it, but we may set it down as certain that no Jewish teacher of that day would appear in public with the head uncovered. He probably wore the customary white linen "napkin" (sudarium), wound round the head as a turban, with the ends of it falling down over the neck. The dress of His disciples was, probably, not materially different.<P>In conclusion it may be said that, although the dress of even orthodox Jews today is as various as their lands of residence and their languages, yet there are two garments worn by them the world over, the Tallith and the \'arba\' kanephoth (see DCG, article "Dress," <span class="noTag">col. 1</span>). Jews who affect special sanctity, especially those living in the Holy Land, still wear the Tallith all day, as was the common custom in Christ\'s time. As the earliest mention of the \'arba\' kanephoth is in 1350 AD, it is clear that it cannot have existed in New Testament times.<P>LITERATURE.<P>Nowack\'s and Benzinger\'s Hebrew Archaologie; Tristram, Eastern Customs in Bible Lands; Rich, Dict. of Roman and Greek Antiq.; Edersheim, Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah,625,and elsewhere; articles on "Dress," "Clothing," "Costumes," etc., HDB, DCG, Jewish Encyclopedia (by Noldeke) in Encyclopedia Biblica (by Abrahams and Cook); Masterman, "Dress and Personal Adornment in Mod. Palestine," in Biblical World,1902,etc.``47';
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isbe[2806]='Drink``<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=FOOD">FOOD</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=DRINK,+STRONG"><a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=DRINK,+STRONG">DRINK, STRONG</a>`1';
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isbe[2807]='Drink offering``<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=SACRIFICE">SACRIFICE</a>`1';
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isbe[2808]='Drink, Strong`(shekhar; sikera; from shakhar, "to be or become drunk"; probably from the same root as sugar, saccharine): With the exception of <a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',28,7);">Nu 28:7</a>, "strong drink" is always coupled with "wine." The two terms are commonly used as mutually exclusive, and as together exhaustive of all kinds of intoxicants.<P>Originally shekhar seems to have been a general term for intoxicating drinks of all kinds, without reference to the material out of which they were made; and in that sense, it would include wine. Reminiscences of this older usage may be found in <a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',28,7);">Nu 28:7</a> (where shekhar is clearly equivalent to wine, as may be seen by comparing it with <a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',28,14);">28:14</a>, and with <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',29,40);">Ex 29:40</a>, where the material of the drink offering is expressly designated "wine").<P>When the Hebrews were living a nomadic life, before their settlement in Canaan, the grape-wine was practically unknown to them, and there would be no need of a special term to describe it. But when they settled down to an agricultural life, and came to cultivate the vine, it would become necessary to distinguish it from the older kinds of intoxicants; hence, the borrowed word yayin ("wine") was applied to the former, while the latter would be classed together under the old term shekhar, which would then come to mean all intoxicating beverages other than wine (<a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',10,9);">Le 10:9</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',6,3);">Nu 6:3</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',14,26);">De 14:26</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',20,1);">Pr 20:1</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',24,9);">Isa 24:9</a>). The exact nature of these drinks is not clearly indicated in the Bible itself. The only fermented beverage other than grape-wine specifically named is pomegranate-wine (<a onClick="return mV(\'Sgs\',8,2);">So 8:2</a>: "the juice of my pomegranate," the Revised Version, margin "sweet wine of my pomegranate"); but we may infer that other kinds of shekhar besides that obtained from pomegranates were in use, such as drinks made from dates, honey, raisins, barley, apples, etc. Probably Jerome (circa 400 AD) was near the mark when he wrote, "Sikera in the Hebrew tongue means every kind of drink which can intoxicate, whether made from grain or from the juice of apples, or when honeycombs are boiled down into a sweet and strange drink, or the fruit of palm oppressed into liquor, and when water is colored and thickened from boiled herbs" (Ep. ad Nepotianum). Thus shekhar is a comprehensive term for all kinds of fermented drinks, excluding wine.<P>Probably the most common sort of shekhar used in Biblical times was palm or date-wine. This is not actually mentioned in the Bible, and we do not meet with its Hebrew name yen temarim ("wine of dates") until the Talmudic period. But it is frequently referred to in the Assyrian-Babylonian contract tablets (cuneiform), and from this and other evidence we infer that it was very well known among the ancient Semitic peoples. Moreover, it is known that the palm tree flourished abundantly in Biblical lands, and the presumption is therefore very strong that wine made of the juice of dates was a common beverage. It must not be supposed, however, that the term shekhar refers exclusively to date-wine. It rather designates all intoxicating liquors other than grape-wine, while in few cases it probably includes even wine.<P>There can be no doubt that shekhar was intoxicating. This is proved<P>(1) from the etymology of the word, it being derived from shakhar, "to be or become drunk" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',9,21);">Ge 9:21</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',29,9);">Isa 29:9</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',25,27);">Jer 25:27</a>, etc.); compare the word for drunkard (shikkar), and for drunkenness (shikkaron) from the same root;<P>(2) from descriptions of its effects: e. g. Isaiah graphically describes the stupefying effect of shekhar on those who drink it excessively (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',28,7,8);">Isa 28:7-8</a>).<P>Hannah defended herself against the charge of being drunk by saying, "I have drunk neither wine nor strong drink," i.e. neither wine nor any other intoxicating liquor (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',1,15);">1Sa 1:15</a>). The attempt made to prove that it was simply the unfermented juice of certain fruits is quite without foundation. Its immoderate use is strongly condemned (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',5,11,12);">Isa 5:11-12</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',20,1);">Pr 20:1</a>; see <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=DRUNKENNESS">DRUNKENNESS</a>). It was forbidden to ministering priests (<a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',10,9);">Le 10:9</a>), and to Nazirites (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',6,3);">Nu 6:3</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',13,4,7,14);">Jud 13:4, 7, 14</a>; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',1,15);">Lu 1:15</a>), but was used in the sacrificial meal as drink offering (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',28,7);">Nu 28:7</a>), and could be bought with the tithe-money and consumed by the worshipper in the temple (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',14,26);">De 14:26</a>). It is commended to the weak and perishing as a means of deadening their pain; but not to princes, lest it might lead them to pervert justice (<a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',31,\'4-7\');">Pr 31:4-7</a>).``49';
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isbe[2809]='Dromedary`drum\'-e-da-ri, drom\'-e-da-ri.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=CAMEL">CAMEL</a>`1';
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isbe[2810]='Drop, Dropping`"To drop" expresses a "distilling" or "dripping" of a fluid (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',5,4);">Jud 5:4</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',3,20);">Pr 3:20</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Sgs\',5,5,13);">So 5:5,13</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Joe\',3,18);">Joe 3:18</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Amo\',9,13);">Am 9:13</a>; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',14,26);">1Sa 14:26</a>, "the honey dropped" (margin "a stream of honey")); <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',29,22);">Job 29:22</a> and <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',45,8);">Isa 45:8</a> read "distil" (the King James Version "drop"). The continuous "droppings" of rain through a leaking roof (roofs were usually made of clay in Palestine, and always liable to cracks and leakage) on a "very rainy day" is compared to a contentious wife (<a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',19,13);">Pr 19:13</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',27,15);">27:15</a>); "What is described is the irritating, unceasing, sound of the fall, drop after drop, of water through the chinks in the roof" (Plumptre, in the place cited); compare also the King James Version <a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',10,18);">Ec 10:18</a> (the Revised Version (British and American) "leaketh").``1';
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isbe[2811]='Dropsy`drop\'-si (hudropikos, "a man afflicted with hudrops or dropsy"): Both forms of this disease occur in Palestine, that in which the limbs and body are distended with water called anasarca, depending generally on cardiac or renal disease, and the form confined to the abdomen, usually the result of liver infection. The latter is the commoner, as liver disease is a frequent result of recurrent attacks of malarial fever. The man was evidently able to move about, as he had entered into the Pharisee\'s house (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',14,2);">Lu 14:2</a>).``1';
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isbe[2812]='Dross`dros (sigh): The refuse of smelting of precious metal (<a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',25,4);">Pr 25:4</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',26,23);">26:23</a>); used figuratively of what is base or worthless (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',1,22,25);">Isa 1:22, 25</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',22,18,19);">Eze 22:18-19</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',119,119);">Ps 119:119</a>).``1';
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isbe[2813]='Drought`drout.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=FAMINE">FAMINE</a>`1';
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isbe[2814]='Drove`drov.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=CATTLE">CATTLE</a>`1';
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isbe[2815]='Drowning`droun\'-ing.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=PUNISHMENTS">PUNISHMENTS</a>`1';
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isbe[2816]='Drum`drum (tumpanon): This was the Hebrew toph, "tabret" or "timbrel," a hand-drum, consisting of a ring of wood or metal covered with a tightly drawn skin, with small pieces of metal hung around the rim, like a tambourine. It was raised in the one hand and struck with the other, usually by women, but sometimes also by men, at festivities and on occasions of rejoicing. See 1Macc 9:39, the Revised Version (British and American) "timbrels."``1';
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isbe[2817]='Drunkenness`drunk\'-\'-n-nes (raweh, shikkaron, shethi; methe):<P>I. Its Prevalance.<P>The Bible affords ample proof that excessive drinking of intoxicants was a common vice among the Hebrews, as among other ancient peoples. This is evident not only from individual cases of intoxication, as Noah (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',9,21);">Ge 9:21</a>), Lot (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',19,33,35);">Ge 19:33, 35</a>), Nabal (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',25,36);">1Sa 25:36</a>), Uriah made drunk by David (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',11,13);">2Sa 11:13</a>), Amnon (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',13,28);">2Sa 13:28</a>), Elah, king of Israel (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',16,9);">1Ki 16:9</a>), Benhadad, king of Syria, and his confederates (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',20,16);">1Ki 20:16</a>), Holofernes (Judith 13:2), etc., but also from frequent references to drunkenness as a great social evil. Thus, Amos proclaims judgment on the voluptuous and dissolute rulers of Samaria "that drink wine in (large) bowls" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Amo\',6,6);">Am 6:6</a>), and the wealthy ladies who press their husbands to join them in a carousal (<a onClick="return mV(\'Amo\',4,1);">Am 4:1</a>); he also complains that this form of self-indulgence was practiced even at the expense of the poor and under the guise of religion, at the sacrificial meals (<a onClick="return mV(\'Amo\',2,8);">Am 2:8</a>; see also <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',5,11,12,22);">Isa 5:11-12, 22</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',28,\'1-8\');">28:1-8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',56,11);">56:11</a>f). Its prevalence is also reflected in many passages in the New Testament (e. g. <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',24,49);">Mt 24:49</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',21,34);">Lu 21:34</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',2,13,15);">Ac 2:13, 15</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eph\',5,18);">Eph 5:18</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Th\',5,7);">1Th 5:7</a>). Paul complains that at Corinth even the love-feast of the Christian church which immediately preceded the celebration of the Eucharist, was sometimes the scene of excessive drinking (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',11,21);">1Co 11:21</a>). It must, however, be noted that it is almost invariably the well-to-do who are charged with this vice in the Bible. There is no evidence to prove that it prevailed to any considerable extent among the common people. Intoxicants were then an expensive luxury, beyond the reach of the poorer classes. See <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=DRINK,+STRONG">DRINK, STRONG</a>.<P>II. Its Symptoms and Effects.<P>These are most vividly portrayed:<P>(1) some of its physical symptoms (<a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',12,25);">Job 12:25</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',107,27);">Ps 107:27</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',23,29);">Pr 23:29</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',19,14);">Isa 19:14</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',28,8);">28:8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',29,9);">29:9</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',25,16);">Jer 25:16</a>);<P>(2) its mental effects: exhilaration (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',43,34);">Ge 43:34</a>), jollity and mirth (1Esdras 3:20), forgetfulness (1Esdras 3:20), loss of understanding and balance of judgment (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',28,7);">Isa 28:7</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Hsa\',4,11);">Ho 4:11</a>);<P>(3) its effects on man\'s happiness and prosperity: its immediate effect is to make one oblivious of his misery; but ultimately it "biteth like a serpent, and stingeth like an adder," and leads to woe and sorrow (<a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',23,\'29-32\');">Pr 23:29-32</a>) and to poverty (<a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',23,21);">Pr 23:21</a>; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',21,17);">Pr 21:17</a>; Ecclesiasticus 19:1); hence, wine is called a "mocker" deceiving the unwise (<a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',20,1);">Pr 20:1</a>);<P>(4) its moral and spiritual effects: it leads to a maladministration of justice (<a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',31,5);">Pr 31:5</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',5,23);">Isa 5:23</a>), provokes anger and a contentious, brawling spirit (<a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',20,1);">Pr 20:1</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',23,29);">23:29</a>; 1Esdras 3:22; Ecclesiasticus 31:26,29f), and conduces to a profligate life (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eph\',5,18);">Eph 5:18</a>; "riot," literally, profligacy). It is allied with gambling and licentiousness (<a onClick="return mV(\'Joe\',3,3);">Joe 3:3</a>), and indecency (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',9,21);">Ge 9:21</a>f). Above all, it deadens the spiritual sensibilities, produces a callous indifference to religious influences and destroys all serious thought (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',5,12);">Isa 5:12</a>).<P>III. Attitude of the Bible to the Drink Question.<P>Intemperance is condemned in uncompromising terms by the Old Testament and the New Testament, as well as by the semi-canonical writings. While total abstinence is not prescribed as a formal and universal rule, broad principles are laid down, especially in the New Testament, which point in that direction.<P>1. In the Old Testament:<P>In the Old Testament, intemperance is most repugnant to the stern ethical rigorism of the prophets, as well as to the more utilitarian sense of propriety of the "wisdom" writers. As might be expected, the national conscience was but gradually quickened to the evil of immoderate drinking. In the narratives of primitive times, excessive indulgence, or at least indulgence to the point of exhilaration, is mentioned without censure as a natural thing, especially on festive occasions (as in <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',43,34);">Ge 43:34</a> the Revised Version, margin). But a conscience more sensitive to the sinfulness of overindulgence was gradually developed, and is reflected in the denunciations of the prophets and the warning of the wise men (compare references under I and II, especially <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',5,11);">Isa 5:11</a>f; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',22,\'1-\');">Isa 22</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',22,\'1-8\');">28:1-8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',23,\'29-33\');">Pr 23:29-33</a>). Nowhere is the principle of total abstinence inculcated as a rule applicable to all. In particular cases it was recognized as a duty. Priests while on duty in the sanctuary were to abstain from wine and strong drink (<a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',10,9);">Le 10:9</a>; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',44,21);">Eze 44:21</a>). Nazirites were to abstain from all intoxicants during the period of their vows (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',6,3);">Nu 6:3</a>f; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Amo\',2,12);">Am 2:12</a>), yet not on account of the intoxicating qualities of wine, but because they represented the simplicity of the older pastoral life, as against the Canaanite civilization which the vine symbolized (W. R. Smith, Prophets of Israel, 84f). So also the Rechabites abstained from wine (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',35,6,8,14);">Jer 35:6, 8, 14</a>) and social conveniences, because they regarded the nomadic life as more conducive to Yahweh-worship than agricultural and town life, with its temptations to Baal-worship. In Daniel and his comrades we have another instance of voluntary abstinence (<a onClick="return mV(\'Dan\',1,\'8-16\');">Da 1:8-16</a>). These, however, are isolated instances. Throughout the Old Testament the use of wine appears as practically universal, and its value is recognized as a cheering beverage (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',9,13);">Jud 9:13</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',104,15);">Ps 104:15</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',31,7);">Pr 31:7</a>), which enables the sick to forget their pains (<a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',31,6);">Pr 31:6</a>). Moderation, however, is strongly inculcated and there are frequent warnings against the temptation and perils of the cup.<P>2. Deutero-Canonical and Extra-Canonical Writings:<P>In Apocrypha, we have the attitude of prudence and common sense, but the prophetic note of stern denunciation is wanting. The path of wisdom is the golden mean. "Wine is as good as life to men, if thou drink it in its measure;....wine drunk in season and to satisfy is joy of heart, and gladness of soul: wine drunk largely is bitterness of soul, with provocation and conflict" (Ecclesiasticus 31:27-30 the Revised Version (British and American)). A vivid picture of the effects of wine-drinking is given in 1Esdras. 3:18-24. Stronger teaching on the subject is given in the Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs. The use of wine is permitted to him who can use it temperately, but abstinence is enjoined as the wiser course (Testament to the Twelve Patriarchs, <span class="noTag">Jud 1:16:3</span>).<P>3. In the New Testament:<P>In the New Testament, intemperance is treated as a grave sin. Only once, indeed, does our Lord explicitly condemn drunkenness (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',21,34);">Lu 21:34</a>), though it is implicitly condemned in other passages (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',24,49);">Mt 24:49</a> = <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',12,45);">Lu 12:45</a>). The meagerness of the references in our Lord\'s teaching is probably due to the fact already mentioned, that it was chiefly prevalent among the wealthy, and not among the poorer classes to whom our Lord mainly ministered. The references in Paul\'s writings are very numerous (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gal\',5,21);">Ga 5:21</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eph\',5,18);">Eph 5:18</a>, et al.). Temperance and sobriety in all things are everywhere insisted on (e. g. <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',24,25);">Ac 24:25</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Gal\',5,23);">Ga 5:23</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Pe\',1,6);">2Pe 1:6</a>). A bishop and those holding honorable position in the church should not be addicted to wine (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ti\',3,2);">1Ti 3:2</a>f; <a onClick="return mV(\'Tts\',1,7);">Tit 1:7</a>f; <a onClick="return mV(\'Tts\',2,2);">2:2</a>f). Yet Jesus and His apostles were not ascetics, and the New Testament gives no rough-and-ready prohibition of strong drink on principle. In contrast with John the Baptist, who was a Nazirite from birth (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',1,15);">Lu 1:15</a>), Jesus was called by His enemies a "wine-bibber" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',11,19);">Mt 11:19</a>). He took part in festivities in which wine was drunk (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',2,10);">Joh 2:10</a>).<P>There are indications that He regarded wine as a source of innocent enjoyment (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',5,38);">Lu 5:38</a>f; <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',17,8);">17:8</a>). To insist on a distinction between intoxicating and unfermented wine is a case of unjustifiable special pleading. It must be borne in mind that the drink question is far more complex and acute in modern than in Biblical times, and that the conditions of the modern world have given rise to problems which were not within the horizon of New Testament writers. The habit of excessive drinking has spread enormously among the common people, owing largely to the cheapening of alcoholic drinks. The fact that the evil exists today in greater proportions may call for a drastic remedy and a special crusade. But rather than defend total abstinence by a false or forced exegesis, it were better to admit that the principle is not formally laid down in the New Testament, while maintaining that there are broad principles enunciated, which in view of modern conditions should lead to voluntary abstinence from all intoxicants. Such principles may be found, e. g. in our Lord\'s teaching in <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',16,24);">Mt 16:24</a>f; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',9,42);">Mr 9:42</a>f; and in the great Pauline passages<65><a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',14,\'13-21\');">Ro 14:13-21</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',8,\'8-13\');">1Co 8:8-13</a>.<P>IV. Drunkenness in Metaphor.<P>Drunkenness very frequently supplies Biblical writers with striking metaphors and similes. Thus, it symbolizes intellectual or spiritual perplexity (<a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',12,25);">Job 12:25</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',19,14);">Isa 19:14</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',23,9);">Jer 23:9</a>), bewilderment and helplessness under calamity (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',13,13);">Jer 13:13</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',23,33);">Eze 23:33</a>). It furnishes a figure for the movements of sailors on board ship in a storm (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',107,27);">Ps 107:27</a>), and for the convulsions of the earth on the day of Yahweh (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',24,20);">Isa 24:20</a>). Yahweh\'s "cup of staggering" is a symbol of affliction, the fury of the Lord causing stupor and confusion (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',51,\'17-23\');">Isa 51:17-23</a>; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',63,6);">Isa 63:6</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',25,15);">Jer 25:15</a>ff; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',23,33);">Eze 23:33</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',75,8);">Ps 75:8</a>). The sword and the arrow are said to be sodden with drink like a drunkard with wine (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',32,42);">De 32:42</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',46,10);">Jer 46:10</a>). In the Apocalypse, Babylon (i.e. Rome) is portrayed under the figure of a "great harlot" who makes kings "drunken with the wine of her fornication"; and who is herself "drunken with the blood of the saints, and...of the martyrs of Jesus" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',17,2,6);">Re 17:2, 6</a>).``49';
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isbe[2818]='Drusilla`droo-sil\'-a (Drousilla, or Drousilla): Wife of Felix, a Jewess, who along with her husband "heard (Paul) concerning the faith in Christ Jesus" during Paul\'s detention in Caesarea (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',24,24);">Ac 24:24</a>).<P>Beta text gives the rendering "Drusilla the wife of Felix, a Jewess, asked to see Paul and to hear the word." The fact that Drusilla was a Jewess explains her curiosity, but Paul, who was probably acquainted with the past history of her and Felix, refused to satisfy their request in the way they desired, and preached to them instead concerning righteousness and self-restraint and the final judgment. At this "Felix was terrified" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',24,25);">Ac 24:25</a>). Beta text states that Paul\'s being left in bonds on the retirement of Felix was due to the desire of the latter to please Drusilla (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',24,27);">Ac 24:27</a>). Probably this explanation, besides that of the accepted text, was true also, as Drusilla, who was a member of the ruling house, saw in Paul an enemy of its power, and hated him for his condemnation of her own private sins.<P>The chief other source of information regarding Drusilla is Josephus. Drusilla was the youngest of the three daughters of Agrippa I, her sisters being Bernice and Mariamne. She was born about 36 AD and was married when 14 years old to Azizus, king of Emeza. Shortly afterward she was induced to desert her husband by Felix, who employed a Cyprian sorcerer, Simon by name, to carry out his purpose. She was also influenced to take this step by the cruelty of Azizus and the hatred of Bernice who was jealous of her beauty. Her marriage with Felix took place about 54 AD and by him she had one son, Agrippa, who perished under Titus in an eruption of Mt. Vesuvius. The mention by Josephus of "the woman" who perished along with Agrippa (Ant., XX, vii, 2) refers probably not to his mother Drusilla but to his wife.``88';
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isbe[2819]='Dualism`du\'-al-iz\'-m`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=PHILOSOPHY">PHILOSOPHY</a>`1';
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isbe[2820]='Due`du.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=DUTY">DUTY</a>`1';
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isbe[2821]='Duke`duk: The rendering in the King James Version in <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',36,15);">Ge 36:15</a>ff; <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',15,15);">Ex 15:15</a>, and <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',1,51);">1Ch 1:51</a>ff of \'alluph (the American Standard Revised Version and the English Revised Version, margin "chief"), and in <a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',13,21);">Jos 13:21</a> of necikhim ("dukes," the Revised Version (British and American) "princes"). It occurs also, as the rendering of strategos, in 1Macc 10:65 (the Revised Version (British and American) "captain"). Elsewhere necikhim is translated "princes" or "principal men." The fact that with two exceptions the term is applied in English Versions of the Bible only to the chiefs of Edom has led to the impression that in the family of Esau the chiefs bore a special and hereditary title. But \'alluph was a general term for tribal chief or prince (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Zec\',9,7);">Zec 9:7</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Zec\',12,5,6);">12:5-6</a>; the Revised Version (British and American) "chieftains," the King James Version "governors").<P>Moreover, at the time the King James Version was made the word "duke" was not used as a title in England: the term had the same general force as dux, the word employed in the Vulgate (Jerome\'s Latin Bible, 390-405 A. D.) So Sir T. Elyot (died 1546) speaks of "Hannibal, duke of Carthage" (The Governor, II, 233); Shakespeare, Henry V, III,2,20, "Be merciful, great duke, to men of mould" (compare Midsummer Night\'s Dream, I,1,21); Sylvester (1591) Du Bartas, "The great Duke, that in dreadful aw upon Mt. Horeb learned the eternal law." In a still earlier age Wycliff uses the word of the Messiah (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',2,6);">Mt 2:6</a>); and in Select Works, III,137,"Jesus Christ, duke of oure batel."<P>Yet in all probability the Hebrew word was more specific than "chief" or "duke" in the broad sense. For if \'alluph is derived from \'eleph, "thousand," "tribe," the term would mean the leader of a clan, a "chiliarch" (compare Septuagint, <a onClick="return mV(\'Zec\',9,7);">Zec 9:7</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Zec\',12,5,6);">12:5-6</a>). the American Standard Revised Version has eliminated the word "duke."`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=CHIEF">CHIEF</a>`134';
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isbe[2822]='Dulcimer`dul\'-si-mer.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=MUSIC">MUSIC</a>`1';
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isbe[2823]='Dumah`du\'-ma (dumah, "silence"): This word occurs in the Old Testament with the following significations:<P>(1) the land of silence or death, the grave (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',94,17);">Ps 94:17</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',115,17);">115:17</a>);<P>(2) a town in the highlands of Judah between Hebron and Beersheba, now ed-Daume (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',15,52);">Jos 15:52</a>);<P>(3) an emblematical designation of Edom in the obscure oracle (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',21,11,12);">Isa 21:11-12</a>);<P>(4) an Ishmaelite tribe in Arabia (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',25,14);">Ge 25:14</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',1,30);">1Ch 1:30</a>). According to the Arabic geographies this son of Ishmael rounded the town of Dumat-el-Jandal, the stone-built Dumah, so called to distinguish it from another Dumah near the Euphrates. The former now bears the name of the Jauf ("belly"), being a depression situated half-way between the head of the Persian Gulf and the head of the gulf of Akaba. Its people in the time of Mohammed were Christians of the tribe of Kelb. It contained a great well from which the palms and crops were irrigated. It has often been visited by European travelers in recent times. See Jour. Royal Geog. Soc., XXIV (1854), 138-58; W. G. Palgrave, Central and Eastern Arabia, chapter ii. It is possible that the oracle in Isaiah (<span class="noTag">number 3</span> above) concerns this place.``189';
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isbe[2824]='Dumb`dum (alam, \'illem, literally, "tied in the tongue"; kophos): Used either as expressing the physical condition of speechlessness, generally associated with deafness, or figuratively as meaning the silence produced by the weight of God\'s judgments (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',39,\'2-9\');">Ps 39:2-9</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Dan\',10,15);">Da 10:15</a>) or the oppression of external calamity (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',38,13);">Ps 38:13</a>). As an adjective it is used to characterize inefficient teachers destitute of spirituality ("dumb dogs," <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',56,10);">Isa 56:10</a>). The speechlessness of Saul\'s companions (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',9,7);">Ac 9:7</a>) was due to fright; that of the man without the wedding garment was because he had no excuse to give (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',22,12);">Mt 22:12</a>). Idols are called mute, because helpless and voiceless (<a onClick="return mV(\'Hab\',2,18,19);">Hab 2:18-19</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',12,2);">1Co 12:2</a>). The dumbness of the sheep before the shearer is a token of submission (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',53,7);">Isa 53:7</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',8,32);">Ac 8:32</a>).<P>Temporary dumbness was inflicted as a sign upon Ezekiel (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',3,26);">3:26</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',24,27);">24:27</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',33,22);">33:22</A>) and as a punishment for unbelief upon Zacharias (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',1,22);">Lu 1:22</a>). There are several cases recorded of our Lord\'s healing the dumb (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',15,30);">Mt 15:30</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',7,37);">Mr 7:37</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',11,14);">Lu 11:14</a>, etc.). Dumbness is often associated with imbecility and was therefore regarded as due to demoniac possession (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',9,32);">Mt 9:32</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',12,22);">12:22</a>). The evangelists therefore describe the healing of these as effected by the casting out of demons.<P>This is especially noted in the case of the epileptic boy (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',9,17);">Mr 9:17</a>). The deaf man with the impediment in his speech (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',7,32);">Mr 7:32</a>) is said to have been cured by loosening the string of his tongue. This does not necessarily mean that he was tongue-tied, which is a condition causing lisping, not stammering; he was probably one of those deaf persons who produce babbling, incoherent and meaningless sounds. I saw in the asylum in Jerusalem a child born blind and deaf, who though dumb, produced inarticulate noises.<P>In an old 14th-century psalter "dumb" is used as a verb in <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',39,\'1-\');">Ps 39</a>: "I doumbed and meked and was ful stille."``107';
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isbe[2825]='Dung; Dung Gate`dung (\'ashpoth, domen, peresh; skubalon, etc.): Nine different words occurring in the Hebrew have been translated "dung" in the Old Testament. The word used to designate one of the gates of Jerusalem (\'ashpoth, <a onClick="return mV(\'Neh\',2,13);">Ne 2:13</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Neh\',3,14);">3:14</a>) is more general than the others and may mean any kind of refuse. The gate was probably so named because outside it was the general dump heap of the city. Visitors in recent years riding outside the city walls of Jerusalem, on their way to the Mt. of Olives or Jericho, may have witnessed such a dump against the wall, which has existed for generations.<P>The first mention made of dung is in connection with sacrificial rites. The sacred law required that the dung, along with what parts of the animal were not burned on the altar, should be burned outside the camp (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',29,14);">Ex 29:14</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',4,11);">Le 4:11</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',8,17);">8:17</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',16,27);">16:27</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',19,5);">Nu 19:5</a>). The fertilizing value of dung was appreciated by the cultivator, as is indicated by <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',13,8);">Lu 13:8</a> and possibly <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',83,10);">Ps 83:10</a> and <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',25,10);">Isa 25:10</a>.<P>Dung was also used as a fuel. <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',4,12,15);">Eze 4:12, 15</a> will be understood when it is known that the dung of animals is a common fuel throughout Palestine and Syria, where other fuel is scarce. During the summer, villagers gather the manure of their cattle, horses or camels, mix it with straw, make it into cakes and dry it for use as fuel for cooking, especially in the winter when wood or charcoal or straw are not procurable. It burns slowly like peat and meets the needs of the kitchen. In Mesopotamia the writer saw it being used with forced draft to fire a steam boiler. There was no idea of uncleanness in Ezekiel\'s mind, associated with the use of animal dung as fuel (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',4,15);">Eze 4:15</a>).<P>Figuratively: Dung was frequently used figuratively to express the idea<P>(a) of worthlessness, especially a perishable article for which no one cares (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',14,10);">1Ki 14:10</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',6,25);">2Ki 6:25</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',9,37);">9:37</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',20,7);">Job 20:7</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',83,10);">Ps 83:10</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',8,2);">Jer 8:2</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',9,22);">9:22</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',16,4);">16:4</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',25,33);">25:33</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Zep\',1,17);">Ze 1:17</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Phl\',3,8);">Php 3:8</a> (the American Standard Revised Version "refuse")). Dunghill was used in the same way (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',2,8);">1Sa 2:8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Ezr\',6,11);">Ezr 6:11</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',113,7);">Ps 113:7</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',25,10);">Isa 25:10</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Dan\',2,5);">Da 2:5</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Dan\',3,29);">3:29</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',14,35);">Lu 14:35</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Lam\',4,5);">La 4:5</a>);<P>(b) as an expression of disgust (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',18,27);">2Ki 18:27</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',36,12);">Isa 36:12</a>);<P>(c) of rebuke (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mal\',2,3);">Mal 2:3</a>).``133';
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isbe[2826]='Dungeon`dun\'-jun.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=PRISON">PRISON</a>`1';
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isbe[2827]='Dunghill`dung\'-hil (\'ashpoth, <a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',2,8);">1Sa 2:8</a>, madhmenah, etc., with other words; kopria, <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',14,35);">Lu 14:35</a>): Dung heap, or place of refuse. To sit upon a dunghill (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',2,8);">1Sa 2:8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',113,7);">Ps 113:7</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Lam\',4,5);">La 4:5</a>) is significant of the lowest and most wretched condition. To turn a house into a dunghill (<a onClick="return mV(\'Dan\',2,5);">Da 2:5</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Dan\',3,29);">3:29</a>), or be flung upon a dunghill (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',14,35);">Lu 14:35</a>), marks the extreme of ignominy.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=DUNG">DUNG</a>`1';
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isbe[2828]='Dura`du\'-ra (dura\'): The name of the plain on which Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, set up the great golden image which all his subjects were ordered to worship (<a onClick="return mV(\'Dan\',3,1);">Da 3:1</a>). Oppert placed it to the southeast of Babylon, near a small river and mounds bearing the name of Douair or Duair, where, also, was what seemed to be the base of a great statue (Exped. scientifique en Mesopotamie, I, 238f). Others have believed that name to indicate a portion of the actual site of Babylon within the great wall (duru) of the city<74>perhaps the rampart designated dur Su-anna, "the rampart (of the city) Lofty-defense," a name of Babylon.<P>The fact that the plain was within the city of Babylon precludes an identification with the city Duru, which seems to have lain in the neighborhood of Erech (Hommel, Grundriss, 264, note 5). It is noteworthy that the Septuagint substitutes Deeira, for Dura, suggesting that the Greek translators identified it with the Babylonian Deru, a city which apparently lay toward the Elamite border. It seems to have been called also Dur-ili, "god\'s rampart." That it was at some distance is supported by the list WAI, IV, 36 [38], where Duru, Tutul and Gudua (Cuthah), intervene between Deru or Dur-ili and Tindir (Babylon). "The plain of the dur" or "rampart" within Babylon would therefore seem to be the best rendering.``136';
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isbe[2829]='Dure`dur (proskairos): Used for "<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ENDURE">endure</a>" (which see), the King James Version <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',13,21);">Mt 13:21</a> (the Revised Version (British and American) "endureth").``1';
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isbe[2830]='Dust`dust (\'aphar; koniortos, chous): Small particles of earth. The word has several figurative and symbolic meanings:<P>(1) Dust being the material out of which God is said to have formed man (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',2,7);">Ge 2:7</a>), it became a symbol of man\'s frailty (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',103,14);">Ps 103:14</a>, "For he knoweth our frame; he remembereth that we are dust"; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',18,27);">Ge 18:27</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',4,19);">Job 4:19</a>, etc.), and of his mortality (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',3,19);">Ge 3:19</a>, "Dust thou art, and unto dust shalt thou return"; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',34,15);">Job 34:15</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',104,29);">Ps 104:29</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',3,20);">Ec 3:20</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',12,7);">12:7</a>, etc.) Hence, it is used figuratively for the grave (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',22,15,29);">Ps 22:15, 29</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',30,9);">30:9</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Dan\',12,2);">Da 12:2</a>).<P>(2) Such actions as to lie in the dust, to lick the dust, to sprinkle dust on the head, are symbols expressive of deep humiliation, abasement or lamentation (e. g. <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',2,12);">Job 2:12</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',42,6);">42:6</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',72,9);">Ps 72:9</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',2,10);">Isa 2:10</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',47,1);">47:1</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',49,23);">49:23</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Lam\',2,10);">La 2:10</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Lam\',3,29);">3:29</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',27,30);">Eze 27:30</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mic\',7,17);">Mic 7:17</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',18,19);">Re 18:19</a>). Hence, such expressions as "He raiseth up the poor out of the dust," i.e. out of their state of lowliness (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',2,8);">1Sa 2:8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',113,7);">Ps 113:7</a>).<P>(3) Throwing dust was an act expressive of execration. Thus, Shimei "cursed" David and "threw stones at him, and cast dust," literally, "dusted (him) with dust" (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',16,13);">2Sa 16:13</a>). So the crowd which Paul addressed at Jerusalem manifested their wrath against him by tossing about their garments and casting dust into the air (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',22,23);">Ac 22:23</a>).<P>(4) Shaking the dust off one\'s feet against anyone (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',10,14);">Mt 10:14</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',6,11);">Mr 6:11</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',9,5);">Lu 9:5</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',10,11);">10:11</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',13,51);">Ac 13:51</a>) is symbolic of renunciation, as we would say "washing one\'s hands of him," an intimation that all further intercourse was at an end. It was practiced by the Pharisees on passing from Gentile to Jewish soil, it being a rabbinical doctrine that the dust of a heathen land defiles.<P>(5) It is also used figuratively for an innumerable multitude (e. g. <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',13,16);">Ge 13:16</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',28,14);">28:14</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',27,16);">Job 27:16</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',78,27);">Ps 78:27</a>).<P>(6) The expression "Yahweh will make the rain of thy land powder and dust" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',28,24);">De 28:24</a>) means the dust in consequence of the drought shall fall down instead of rain on the dry ground. In Judea and vicinity during a sirocco, the air becomes filled with sand and dust, which are blown down by the wind with great violence.``49';
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isbe[2831]='Duty`du\'-ti (dabhar; opheilo):<P>The word duty occurs only three times in the Old Testament and twice in the New Testament. In the Old Testament it is the translation of dabhar, which, meaning originally "speech," or "word," came to denote any particular "matter" that had to be attended to. In the two places where it is rendered "duty" (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',8,14);">2Ch 8:14</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Ezr\',3,4);">Ezr 3:4</a>) the reference is to the performance of the Temple services<65>praise and sacrifice<63>and it is probably from these passages that the phrase "taking duty" in church services is derived. In other passages we have different words employed to denote the priests\' dues: the King James Version <a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',10,13,14);">Le 10:13-14</a>, hok ("statutory portion"); <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',18,3);">De 18:3</a>, mishpat ("judgment"). In <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',3,27);">Pr 3:27</a>, we have a reference to duty in the moral sense, "Withhold not good from them to whom it is due," ba\'-al (i.e. as in the King James Version margin, "from the owners thereof"). In <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',21,10);">Ex 21:10</a> we have the "duty of marriage" (\'onah), that which was due to the wife.<P>In the New Testament "duty" is expressed by opheilo, "to owe," "to be due." In <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',17,10);">Lu 17:10</a>, we have "Say,...we have done that which it was our duty to do," and in <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',15,27);">Ro 15:27</a> the King James Version, it is said of the Gentiles with reference to the Jewish Christians, "Their duty is also to minister unto them in carnal things," the American Standard Revised Version "they owe it." In <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',18,34);">Mt 18:34</a> we have "till he should pay all that was due" (opheilo, "owing"), and in <a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',7,3);">1Co 7:3</a> the King James Version, "Render unto the wife due opheile benevolence," the American Standard Revised Version "her due."`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ETHICS">ETHICS</a>`185';
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isbe[2832]='Dwarf`dworf:<P>The rendering in English Versions of the Bible of the Hebrew word dak, "thin," "small," in <a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',21,20);">Le 21:20</a>, where a list is given of physical failings which forbade man of the seed of Aaron to officiate at the altar, though he might partake of the sacrificial gifts. The precise meaning of the Hebrew word here is uncertain; elsewhere it is used of the lean kine (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',41,3);">Ge 41:3</a>) and blasted ears (verse <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',41,23);">23</a>) of Pharaoh\'s dream; of the grains of manna (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',16,14);">Ex 16:14</a>), of the still, small voice (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',19,12);">1Ki 19:12</a>), of dust (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',29,5);">Isa 29:5</a>), etc. Septuagint and Vulgate (Jerome\'s Latin Bible, 390-405 A. D.) suggest defective eyes; but "withered" would perhaps best express the meaning.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=PRIESTS+AND+LEVITES">PRIESTS AND LEVITES</a>`57';
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isbe[2833]='Dwell`dwel:<P>(1) In the Old Testament "dwell" is a translation of 9 words, of which by far the most frequent is yashabh, "to sit down," translated "dwell" over 400 times (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',4,20);">Ge 4:20</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',20,4);">Jos 20:4</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',17,1,4,5);">1Ch 17:1, 4-5</a>, etc.); also very frequently "sit," and sometimes "abide," "inhabit," "remain." Another word often rendered "dwell" is shakhan or shakhen ("to settle down"), from which is derived the rabbinic word shekhinah (literally, "that which dwells"), the light on the mercy-seat which symbolized the Divine presence (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',25,8);">Ex 25:8</a>, etc.). In order to avoid appearing to localize the Divine Being, wherever God is said to "dwell" in a place, the Targum renders that He "causes His Shekinah to dwell" there.<P>(2) In the New Testament "dwell" most frequently stands for oikeo, or one of its compounds; also skenoo, and (chiefly in the Johannine writings) meno, which, however, is always translated "abide" in the Revised Version (British and American), and generally in the King James Version. Mention may be made of the mystical significance of the word in some New Testament passages, of the indwelling of the Father or of the Godhead in Christ (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',14,10);">Joh 14:10</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Col\',1,19);">Col 1:19</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Col\',2,9);">2:9</a>), of the believer in Christ (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',6,56);">Joh 6:56</a> the King James Version; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eph\',3,17);">Eph 3:17</a>), and in God (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Jo\',4,15);">1Joh 4:15</a> the King James Version; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',90,1);">Ps 90:1</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',91,1);">91:1</a>), and of the Holy Spirit or God in the believer (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',14,17);">Joh 14:17</a>; the King James Version <a onClick="return mV(\'1Jo\',3,24);">1Joh 3:24</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Jo\',4,15);">4:15</a>f).``49';
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isbe[2834]='Dye; Dyeing`di, di\'-ing (me\'oddam, hamuc, tebhul, cebha\'):<P>Four different Hebrew words have been translated "dyed": the King James Version<P>(a) me\'-oddam, found in <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',25,5);">Ex 25:5</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',26,14);">26:14</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',35,7);">35:7</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',36,19);">36:19</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',39,34);">39:34</a>;<P>(b) hamuts (the Revised Version, margin "crimsoned") (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',63,1);">Isa 63:1</a>);<P>(c) tebhul (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',23,15);">Eze 23:15</a>). Tebhul is probably more correctly rendered "flowing turban" as in the Revised Version (British and American) of the above verses (Brown-Driver-Briggs\' Hebrew Lexicon);<P>(d) gebha\', "dyed" is so translated in the American Standard Revised Version of <a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',5,30);">Jud 5:30</a> (BDB); compare Arabic sabagh.<P>The above references and other color words mentioned elsewhere (see <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=COLOR">COLOR</a>) indicate that the Israelites were acquainted with dyed stuffs, even if they themselves did not do the dyeing. An analysis of the various Biblical references shows but four colors which were produced on cloth by dyeing, namely, purple, blue (violet), crimson and scarlet. Of these, purple is the one best known because of the many historical references to it. It was the symbol of royalty and luxury. Because of its high price, due to the expensive method of obtaining it, only royalty and the rich could afford purple attire. One writer tells us that the dyestuff was worth its weight in silver. Probably it was because of its scarcity, and because it was one of the very limited number of dyes known, rather than for any remarkable beauty of color, that the purple was so much sought after. If Pliny\'s estimate is to be accredited, then "in the dye the smell of it was offensive and the color itself was harsh, of a greenish hue and strongly resembling that of the sea when in a tempestuous state."<P>1. Purple and Blue:<P>The purple and blue dyes were extracted from shellfish. The exact process used by the ancients is still a question in spite of the attempts of early writers to describe it. Tyre and Sidon were noted as the suppliers of these colors, hence, the name "Tyrian purple." The inhabitants of these cities were at first simply dealers in the purple (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',27,7,24);">Eze 27:7, 24</a>), but they afterward became the manufacturers, as the heaps of the emptied shells of the Murex trunculus, which still exist in the vicinity of these cities, testify. The pigment was secreted by a gland in the lining of the stomach. The shell was punctured and the fish removed in order to secure the dye. The juice, at first whitish, changed on exposure to yellowish or greenish and finally to red, amethyst or purple, according to the treatment. A modified color was obtained by first dipping the textile in a cochineal bath and then in the purple, Tyrian purple was considered most valuable when it was "exactly the color of clotted blood and of a blackish hue" (Pliny). See also <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=LYDIA">LYDIA</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=THYATIRA">THYATIRA</a>.<P>Besides the shellfish above mentioned, several other species are noted by different writers, namely, Murex branderis, Murex erinaceus, Murex buccinum (purpura haemastoma). This latter species is still used by the dwellers on the shores where it is found. Various species of the murex are found today at Haifa (Syria), about the Greek isles and on the north coast of Africa. The purple color has been produced from them by modern chemists, but it is of historical interest only, in the light of the discovery of modern artificial dyes with which it could not compete commercially.<P>Two words have been used in the Hebrew Bible to describe the colors from shellfish:<P>(a) \'argaman (Greek porphura). This has been translated "purple";<P>(b) tekheleth which was probably a shade of violet, but has been translated "blue" in both the King James Version and the Revised Version (British and American).<P>2. Crimson and Scarlet:<P>As indicated elsewhere (See <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=COLORS">COLORS</a>), three Hebrew words have been rendered crimson or scarlet:<P>(a) karmil (compare Arabic kirmiz and English "carmine"),<P>(b) tola\', and<P>(c) shani. We know nothing further about the method of producing these colors than that they were both obtained from the kermes insect which feeds on a species of live oak growing in Southern Europe and Turkey in Asia. The modern dyer can obtain several shades from the cochineal insect by varying the mordants or assistants used with the dye. Pliny mentions the same fact as being known by the ancient Egyptians. Some of the Syrian dyers still use the kermes, commonly called dud ("worms"), although most of them hove resorted to the artificial European dyes which they indiscriminately call dud frangy ("foreign worms").<P>The "rams\' skins dyed red" mentioned in Exodus are still made in Syria. After the ram\'s skin has been tanned in sumac, it is laid out on a table and a solution of the dye, made by boiling dud in water, is rubbed on. After the dye is dry, the skin is rubbed with oil and finally polished. No native product is more characteristic of the country than the slippers, Bedouin shoes, and other leather articles made from "rams\' skins dyed red" (see <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=TANNER">TANNER</a>).<P>3. Other Dyes Probably Known:<P>Other dyes probably known were:<P>(1) Madder.<P>In <a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',10,1);">Jud 10:1</a>, we read that "after Abimelech there arose to save Israel Tola the son of Puah." These were probably names of clans. In the Hebrew they are also color words. Tola\' is the scarlet dye and pu\'ah, if, as is probable, it is the same as the Arabic fuwah, means "madder." This would add another dyestuff. Until the discovery of alizarin, which is artificial madder, the growing of fuwah was one of the industries of Cyprus and Syria. It was exported to Europe and was also used locally for producing "Turkey red" on cotton and for dyeing dull reds on wool for rug making (see <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=THYATIRA">THYATIRA</a>). It was the custom near Damascus for a father to plant new madder field for each son that was born. The field began to yield in time to support the boy and later become his inheritance. Madder is mentioned in the Talmud and by early Latin writers. A Saracenic helmet and a shield of similar origin, in the possession of the writer, are lined with madder-dyed cotton.<P>(2) Indigo. Another dye has been discovered among the Egyptian mummy cloths, namely, indigo. Indigo blue was used in weaving to form the borders of the cloths. This pigment was probably imported from India.<P>(3) Yellows and Browns. Yellows and browns of doubtful origin have also been found in the Egyptian tombs. The Jews acquired from the Phoenicians the secret of dyeing, and later held the monopoly in this trade in some districts. A Jewish guild of purple dyers is mentioned on a tombstone in Hieropolis. In the 12th century AD Jews were still dyers and glass workers at Tyre. Akhissar, a Jewish stronghold in Asia Minor, was famous as a dyeing city.<p>LITERATURE.<P>See "<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=Crafts">CRAFTS</a>" especially in Wilkinson, Perrot and Chipiez, Jewish Encyclopedia, and HDB.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ATTIRE">ATTIRE</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=DYED+ATTIRE">DYED ATTIRE</a>`133';
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isbe[2835]='Dysentery`dis\'-en-ter-i (dusenteria):<P>In <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',28,8);">Ac 28:8</a> the Revised Version (British and American) uses this word in place of the phrase "bloody flux" of the King James Version to describe the disease by which the father of Publius was affected in Malta at the time of Paul\'s shipwreck. The acute form of this disease is often attended with high temperature, hence, Luke speaks of it as "fever and dysentery" (puretois kai dusenteria).<P>The disease is still occasionally epidemic in Malta where there have been several bad outbreaks among the garrison in the last century, and it has proved to be an intractable and fatal disease there. It is due to parasitic microbe, the Bacillus dysenteriae. In <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',21,19);">2Ch 21:19</a> there is reference to an epidemic of a similar nature in the days of Jehoram. The malady, as predicted by Elisha, attacked the king and assumed a chronic form in the course of which portions of the intestine sloughed. This condition sometimes occurs in the amoebic form of dysentery, cases of which sometimes last over two years.``107';
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isbe[2836]='Eagle`e\'-g\'-l (nesher; aetos; Latin aquila): A bird of the genus aquila of the family falconidae.<P>The Hebrew nesher, meaning "to tear with the beak," is almost invariably translated "eagle," throughout the Bible; yet many of the most important references compel the admission that the bird to which they applied was a vulture.<P>There were many large birds and carrion eaters flocking over Palestine, attracted by the offal from animals slaughtered for tribal feasts and continuous sacrifice. The eagle family could not be separated from the vultures by their habit of feeding, for they ate the offal from slaughter as well as the vultures. One distinction always holds good. Eagles never flock. They select the tallest trees of the forest, the topmost crag of the mountain, and pairs live in solitude, hunting and feeding singly, whenever possible carrying their prey to the nest so that the young may gain strength and experience by tearing at it and feeding themselves. The vultures are friendly, and collect and feed in flocks. So wherever it is recorded that a "flock came down on a carcass," there may have been an eagle or two in it, but the body of it were vultures. Because they came in such close contact with birds of prey, the natives came nearer dividing them into families than any birds. Of perhaps a half-dozen, they recognized three eagles, they knew three vultures, four or five falcons, and several kites; but almost every Biblical reference is translated "eagle," no matter how evident the text makes it that the bird was a vulture.<P>For example, <a onClick="return mV(\'Mic\',1,16);">Mic 1:16</a>: "Make thee bald, and cut off thy hair for the children of thy delight: enlarge thy baldness as the eagle (m "vulture"); for they are gone into captivity from thee." This is a reference to the custom of shaving the head when in mourning, but as Palestine knew no bald eagle, the text could refer only to the bare head and neck of the griffon vulture. The eagles were, when hunger-driven, birds of prey; the vultures, carrion feeders only. There was a golden eagle (the osprey of the King James Version), not very common, distinguished by its tan-colored head; the imperial eagle, more numerous and easily identified by a dark head and white shoulders; a spotted eagle; a tawny eagle, much more common and readily distinguished by its plumage; and the short-toed eagle, most common of all and especially a bird of prey, as also a small hooded eagle so similar to a vulture that it was easily mistaken for one, save that it was very bold about taking its own food.<P>The first Biblical reference to the eagle referred to the right bird. <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',19,4);">Ex 19:4</a>: "Ye have seen what I did unto the Egyptians, and how I bare you on eagles\' wings, and brought you unto myself." This "bare you on eagles\' wings" must not be interpreted to mean that an eagle ever carried anything on its back. It merely means that by strength of powerful wing it could carry quite a load with its feet and frequently was seen doing this. Vultures never carried anything; they feasted and regurgitated what they had eaten to their young.<P>The second reference is found in <a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',11,13);">Le 11:13</a> and repeated in <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',14,12);">De 14:12</a>, the lists of abominations. It would seem peculiar that Moses would find it necessary to include eagles in this list until it is known that Arab mountaineers were eating these birds at that time. The next falls in <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',28,49);">De 28:49</a>: "Yahweh will bring a nation against thee from far, from the end of the earth, as the eagle flieth; a nation whose tongue thou shalt not understand." This also refers to the true eagle and points out that its power of sustained flight, and the speed it could attain when hastening to its hunger-clamoring young, had been observed. The next reference is in <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',32,11);">De 32:11</a>: "As an eagle that stirreth up her nest, That fluttereth over her young, He spread abroad his wings, he took them, He bare them on his pinions."<P>This is good natural history at last. Former versions made these lines read as if the eagle carried its young on its wings, a thing wholly incompatible with flight in any bird. Samuel\'s record of the lamentation of David over Saul and Jonathan is a wonderful poetic outburst and contains reference to this homing flight of the eagle (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',1,23);">2Sa 1:23</a>). In <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',9,26);">Job 9:26</a> the arrow-like downward plunge of the hunger-driven eagle is used in comparison with the flight of time. In <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',39,\'1-\');">Job 39</a>, which contains more good natural history than any other chapter of the Bible, will be found everything concerning the eagle anyone need know:<P class="in15">"Is it at thy command that the eagle mounteth up,<br>And maketh her nest on high?<br>On the cliff she dwelleth, and maketh her home,<br>Upon the point of the cliff, and the stronghold.<br>From thence she spieth out the prey;<br>Her eyes behold it afar off.<br>Her young ones also suck up blood:<br>And where the slain are, there is she" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',39,\'27-30\');">Job 39:27-30</a>).<p><a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',103,5);">Ps 103:5</a> is a reference to the long life of the eagle. The bird has been known to live to an astonishing age in captivity; under natural conditions, the age it attains can only be guessed.<P class="in15">"Who satisfieth thy desire with good things,<br>So that thy youth is renewed like the eagle."<p><a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',23,5);">Pr 23:5</a> compares the flight of wealth with that of an eagle; <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',30,17);">Pr 30:17</a> touches on the fact that the eye of prey is the first place attacked in eating, probably because it is the most vulnerable point and so is frequently fed to the young. <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',30,19);">Pr 30:19</a>:<p class="in15">"The way of an eagle in the air;<br>The way of a serpent upon a rock:<br>The way of a ship in the midst of the sea;<br>And the way of a man with a maiden."<P>This reference to the eagle is to that wonderful power of flight that enables a bird to hang as if frozen in the sky, for long periods appearing to our sight immovable, or to sail and soar directly into the eye of the sun, seeming to rejoice in its strength of flight and to exult in the security and freedom of the upper air. The word "way" is here improperly translated. To the average mind it always means a road, a path. In this instance it should be translated:<P class="in15">The characteristics of an eagle in the air;<br>The habit of a serpent upon the rock;<br>The path of a ship in the midst of the sea;<br>And the manner of a man with a maid.<p>Each of these lines stood a separate marvel to Agur, and had no connection with the others (but compare The <span class="noTag">Wisdom of Solomon 5:10-11</span>, and see <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=WAY">WAY</a>).<P><a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',40,31);">Isa 40:31</a> is another flight reference. <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',49,16);">Jer 49:16</a> refers to the inaccessible heights at which the eagle loves to build and rear its young. <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',49,22);">Jer 49:22</a> refers to the eagle\'s power of flight. <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',1,10);">Eze 1:10</a> recounts a vision of the prophet in which strange living creatures had faces resembling eagles. The same book (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',17,3);">17:3</a>) contains the parable of the eagle: "Thus saith the Lord Yahweh: A great eagle with great wings and long pinions, full of feathers, which had divers colors, came unto Lebanon, and took the top of the cedar." <a onClick="return mV(\'Hsa\',8,1);">Ho 8:1</a> is another flight reference. <a onClick="return mV(\'Oba\',1,4);">Obad 1:4</a> is almost identical with <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',49,16);">Jer 49:16</a>. The next reference is that of Micah, and really refers to the griffon vulture (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mic\',1,16);">Mic 1:16</a>). In <a onClick="return mV(\'Hab\',1,8);">Hab 1:8</a> the reference is to swift flight. <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',24,28);">Mt 24:28</a> undoubtedly refers to vultures. In <a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',4,7);">Re 4:7</a> the eagle is used as a symbol of strength. In <a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',8,13);">Re 8:13</a> the bird is represented as speaking: "And I saw, and I heard an eagle (the King James Version "angel"), flying in mid heaven, saying with a great voice, Woe, woe, woe, for them that dwell on the earth, by reason of the other voices of the trumpet of the three angels, who are yet to sound." The eagle makes its last appearance in the vision of the woman and the dragon (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',12,14);">Re 12:14</a>).``167';
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isbe[2837]='Eanes`e\'-a-nez (<span class="noTag"1Esdras 9:21</span>):<P>the Revised Version (British and American)<P><a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=MANES">MANES</a> (which see), the Revised Version, margin "Harim."``1';
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isbe[2838]='Ear`er (\'ozen; ous, otion, the latter word (literally, "earlet") in all the Gospels only used of the ear of the high priest\'s servant, which was cut off by Peter: <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',26,51);">Mt 26:51</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',14,47);">Mr 14:47</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',22,51);">Lu 22:51</a> (not <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',22,50);">22:50</a>); <a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',18,10,26);">Joh 18:10, 26</a>):<P>(1) The physical organ of hearing which was considered of peculiar importance as the chief instrument by which man receives information and commandments. For this reason the ear of the priest had to be specially sanctified, the tip of the right ear being touched with sacrificial blood at the consecration (<a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',8,23);">Le 8:23</a>). Similarly the ear of the cleansed leper had to be rededicated to the service of God by blood and oil (<a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',14,14,17,25,28);">Le 14:14, 17, 25, 28</a>). The ear-lobe of a servant, who preferred to remain with the family of his master rather than become free in the seventh year, was to be publicly bored or pierced with an awl in token of perpetual servitude (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',21,6);">Ex 21:6</a>). It has been suggested that <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',40,6);">Ps 40:6</a> should be interpreted in this sense, but this is not probable (see below). The cutting off of the ears and noses of captives was an atrocious custom of war frequently alluded to in oriental literature, (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',23,25);">Eze 23:25</a>). The phrase "to open the ear," which originally means the uncovering of the ear by partially removing the turban, so as to permit a clearer hearing, is used in the sense of revealing a secret or of giving important (private) information (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',9,15);">1Sa 9:15</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',20,2,12,13);">20:2, 12-13</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',7,27);">2Sa 7:27</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',17,25);">1Ch 17:25</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',40,6);">Ps 40:6</a>), and the New Testament promises similarly that "things which eye saw not, and ear heard not" are to be revealed by the reconciled God to the heart that in gladsome surrender has come to Him to be taught by His spirit (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',2,9);">1Co 2:9</a>).<P>(2) The inner ear, the organ of spiritual perception. If the ear listens, the heart willingly submits, but often the spiritual ear is "hardened" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',6,10);">Isa 6:10</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Zec\',7,11);">Zec 7:11</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',13,15);">Mt 13:15</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',28,27);">Ac 28:27</a>), or "heavy" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',6,10);">Isa 6:10</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',29,4);">De 29:4</a>), either by self-seeking obstinacy or by the judgment of an insulted God. Such unwilling hearers are compared to the "deaf adder....which hearkeneth not to the voice of charmers, charming never so wisely" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',58,4,5);">Ps 58:4-5</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',21,13);">Pr 21:13</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',28,9);">28:9</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',7,57);">Ac 7:57</a>). The expression "He that hath ears to hear let him hear" is frequent in the Synoptic Gospels, occurring 7 or 8 times: <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',11,15);">Mt 11:15</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',13,9,43);">Mt 13:9, 43</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',4,9,23);">Mr 4:9, 23</a> (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',7,16);">7:16</a> the Revised Version (British and American) omits); <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',8,8);">Lu 8:8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',14,35);">14:35</a>, and while not found in the Fourth Gospel, it occurs seven times in <a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',2,\'1-\');">Re 2</a> and <a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',3,\'1-\');">3</a>. "Itching ears," on the other hand, are those that have become tired of the sound of oft-repeated truth and that long for new though deceitful teaching (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ti\',4,3);">2Ti 4:3</a>). Ears may "tingle" at startling news, especially of disaster (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',3,11);">1Sa 3:11</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',21,12);">2Ki 21:12</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',19,3);">Jer 19:3</a>).<P>(3) God\'s ears are often mentioned in the anthropopathic style of Scripture, signifying the ability of God to receive the petitions of His people, for "He that planted the ear, shall he not hear?" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',94,9);">Ps 94:9</a> also <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',10,17);">Ps 10:17</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',34,15);">34:15</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',130,2);">130:2</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',59,1);">Isa 59:1</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Pe\',3,12);">1Pe 3:12</a>). But God also hears the murmurings of the wicked against Him (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',11,1);">Nu 11:1</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',19,28);">2Ki 19:28</a>; <span class="noTag">Wis 1:10</span>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jam\',5,4);">Jas 5:4</a>); still it lies in His power to refuse to hear (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',8,18);">Eze 8:18</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Lam\',3,8);">La 3:8</a> compare also <a onClick="return mV(\'Lam\',3,56);">La 3:56</a>).``106';
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isbe[2839]='Earing`er\'-ing (harish):<P>The Hebrew word is twice translated "earing" in the King James Version (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',45,6);">Ge 45:6</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',34,21);">Ex 34:21</a>). The Revised Version (British and American) rendering is "plowing": "There shall be neither plowing nor harvest."<P>See also <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',21,4);">De 21:4</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',8,12);">1Sa 8:12</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',30,24);">Isa 30:24</a>.``1';
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isbe[2840]='Early`ur\'-li (orthros, and related words; proi):<P>The word generally refers to the day, and means the hour of dawn or soon after (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',19,2);">Ge 19:2</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',36,15);">2Ch 36:15</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Hsa\',6,4);">Ho 6:4</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',24,22);">Lu 24:22</a>). Sometimes it refers to the beginning of the season, eg. the early rain (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',84,6);">Ps 84:6</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jam\',5,7);">Jas 5:7</a>; see <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=RAIN">RAIN</a>). It may also have the sense of "speedily" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',46,5);">Ps 46:5</a>). The early morning is frequently commended as the hour for prayer. See examples of Jesus (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',1,35);">Mr 1:35</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',21,38);">Lu 21:38</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',8,2);">Joh 8:2</a>); also Abraham (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',19,27);">Ge 19:27</a>), Jacob (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',28,18);">Ge 28:18</a>), Gideon (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',6,38);">Jud 6:38</a>), Samuel (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',15,12);">1Sa 15:12</a>), David (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',17,20);">1Sa 17:20</a>).``64';
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isbe[2841]='Earnest`ur\'-nest (arrhabon):<P>Found three times in the New Testament: The "earnest of our inheritance" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eph\',1,14);">Eph 1:14</a>); "the earnest of the Spirit" (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',1,22);">2Co 1:22</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',5,5);">5:5</a>).<P>It has an equivalent in Hebrew \'erabhon (found in <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',38,17,18,20);">Ge 38:17-18, 20</a>), in Latin arrabo, French arrhes and the Old English arles. The term is mercantile and comes originally from the Phoenicians. Its general meaning is that of a pledge or token given as the assurance of the fulfillment of a bargain or promise. It also carries with it the idea of forfeit, such as is now common in land deals, only from the obverse side. In other words, the one promising to convey property, wages or blessing binds the promise with an advance gift or pledge partaking of the quality of the benefit to be bestowed. If the agreement be about wages, then a part of the wages is advanced; if it be about land, then a clod given to the purchaser or beneficiary may stand as the pledge of final and complete conveyance of the property.<P>Figurative: In the spiritual sense, as used in the passages above named, the reference is to the work of the Spirit of God in our hearts being a token and pledge of a perfect redemption and a heavenly inheritance. There is more than the idea of security in the word as used, for it clearly implies the continuity and identity of the blessing.``158';
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isbe[2842]='Earring`er\'-ring:<P>An ornamental pendant of some kind hanging from the ears has been worn by both sexes in oriental lands from the earliest times. Among the Greeks and Romans, as with western peoples in general, its use was confined to females. The ears in the statue of the Medicean Venus are pierced and probably were originally ornamented with earrings. It is clear, however, that among the Hebrews and related oriental peoples earrings were worn by both sexes. Abraham\'s servant "put the earring upon (Rebekah\'s) face, and the bracelets upon her hands" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',24,47);">Ge 24:47</a> King James Version), in accordance with custom, evidently, but it is implied that it was customary for men also to wear earrings, in that the relatives and friends of Job "every one (gave him) an earring of gold" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',42,11);">Job 42:11</a> King James Version).<P>Such ornaments were usually made of gold, finely wrought, and often set with precious stones, as archaeology has shown. Such jewels were worn in ancient times for protective as well as for decorative purposes. the Revised Version (British and American) renders "amulets" for the King James Version "earrings" in <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',3,20);">Isa 3:20</a>, the Hebrew word (lechashim) being elsewhere associated with serpent-charming; but the earrings of <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',35,4);">Ge 35:4</a>, also, were more than mere ornaments, so the King James Version and the Revised Version (British and American) may both be right in their renderings here (Kennedy). The influence of Egypt, where amulets of various kinds were worn by men and gods, by the living and the dead, is shown by recent excavations at Gezer, Taanach and Megiddo.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=AMULET">AMULET</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ORNAMENT">ORNAMENT</a>`47';
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isbe[2843]='Earth`urth (\'adhamah, \'erets, \'aphar; ge, oikoumene):<P>In a hilly limestone country like Palestine, the small amount of iron oxide in the rocks tends to be oxidized, and thereby to give a prevailing reddish color to the soil. This is especially the case on relatively barren hills where there is little organic matter present to prevent reddening and give a more blackish tinge.<p>\'Adhamah (compare \'adham, "a man," and Adam) is from \'adham, "to be red," and is used in the senses: "earth" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',20,24);">Ex 20:24</a>), "land" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',105,35);">Ps 105:35</a>), a "land" or country (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',14,2);">Isa 14:2</a>), "ground" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',4,11);">Ge 4:11</a>), "the earth" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',7,4);">Ge 7:4</a>).<P>The word most in use is \'erets, undoubtedly from a most ancient root occurring in many languages, as English "earth," German Erde, Arabic \'ard. It is used in most of the senses of \'adhamah, but less as "soil" and more as "the earth" as a part of the universe; frequently with shamayim, "heavens," as in <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',1,1);">Ge 1:1</a>: "In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth."<P>\'Aphar and its root word and derivatives are closely paralleled in the Arabic, and refer mainly to "dust" or "dry earth" (compare Arabic \'afir, "to be of the color of dust"; \'afar "dust"; ya\'fur, "a gazelle"; Hebrew \'opher, "a gazelle"). Compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',2,7);">Ge 2:7</a>: "Yahweh God formed man of the dust of the ground"; <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',2,12);">Job 2:12</a>: "...sprinkled dust upon their heads"; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',104,29);">Ps 104:29</a>: "...they die, and return to their dust"; <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',18,27);">Ge 18:27</a>: "dust and ashes."<P>In the Septuagint and New Testament, ge is used in nearly all cases, oikoumene being used a few times for the "habitable earth," as in <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',21,26);">Lu 21:26</a> the King James Version.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=WORLD">WORLD</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ANTHROPOLOGY">ANTHROPOLOGY</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ASTRONOMY">ASTRONOMY</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=EVOLUTION">EVOLUTION</a>`1';
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isbe[2844]='Earth, Circle of the``<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ASTRONOMY">ASTRONOMY</a>`1';
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isbe[2845]='Earth, Corners of the`The "corners" or "ends" of the earth are its "wings" (kanephoth ha-\'arets), i.e. its borders or extremities. The word in general means a wing, because the wing of a bird is used as a covering for its young, and from this meaning it acquires that of the extremity of anything stretched out. It is thus used in <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',22,12);">De 22:12</a>: "Thou shalt make thee fringes upon the four borders (wings) of thy vesture, wherewith thou coverest thyself." It thus also means the coasts or boundaries of the land surface of the earth; its extremities. It is translated "corners" in <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',11,12);">Isa 11:12</a>; "ends" in <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',37,3);">Job 37:3</a>, <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',38,13);">38:13</a>. The "four corners" of the earth (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',11,12);">Isa 11:12</a>) or "land" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',7,2);">Eze 7:2</a>) are therefore simply the extremities of the land in the four cardinal directions.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ASTRONOMY">ASTRONOMY</a>`119';
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isbe[2846]='Earth, Ends of the``<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=EARTH+CORNERS+OF+THE">EARTH, CORNERS OF THE</a>`1';
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isbe[2847]='Earth, Pillars of the``<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ASTRONOMY">ASTRONOMY</a>`1';
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isbe[2848]='Earth, the New``<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ESCHATOLOGY+OF+THE+NEW+TESTAMENT">ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=HEAVENS+NEW">HEAVENS, NEW</a>`1';
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isbe[2849]='Earth, Vault, of the`volt:<P>In one passage God is said to have "founded his vault (\'aghuddah) upon the earth" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Amo\',9,6);">Am 9:6</a>). It is not quite certain whether this dome or vault refers to the earth itself, or to the heavens arched above it.<P>The latter is the usual interpretation, but in either case the reference is rather to the strength of the structure than to its form; the word implying something that is firmly bound together and hence, an arch or dome because of its stability.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ASTRONOMY">ASTRONOMY</a>`1';
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isbe[2850]='Earthen Vessels`urth\'-\'-n, (cheres, yetser; ostrakinos):<P>These vessels were heat-resisting and were used for cooking and for boiling clothes (<a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',6,28);">Le 6:28</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',11,33);">11:33</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',14,5,50);">14:5, 50</a>). They were probably non-porous and took the place of the kidri or ma\'ajin used in Syria today. A traveler in the interior of Palestine may still meet with the hospitality showed to David (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',17,28);">2Sa 17:28</a>). The generous natives brought not only gifts of food but the necessary vessels in which to cook it. An earthen vessel was used to preserve a land deed (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',32,14);">Jer 32:14</a>).<P>Figurative: In <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',19,1);">Jer 19:1</a> breaking of an earthen vessel was symbolical of the destruction of Jerusalem. These vessels were also used to symbolize the commonness (<a onClick="return mV(\'Lam\',4,2);">La 4:2</a>) and frailness of our bodies (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',4,7);">2Co 4:7</a>).`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=POTTERY">POTTERY</a>`133';
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isbe[2851]='Earthly`urth\'-li (epigeios, "existing upon the earth," "terrestrial," from epi, "upon" and ge, "earth"; Vulgate (Jerome\'s Latin Bible, 390-405 AD.) terrenus):<P>Of or pertaining to the earth, or to the present state of existence. The word epigeios is not found in Septuagint, but occurs in classical Greek from Plato down. In Plutarch Mor. 566 D, it occurs in the remarkable phrase, "that which is earthly of the soul."<P>Its meaning is primarily merely local ("being on the earth"). The word ge ("earth") has not in itself an ethical significance, and does not carry a suggestion of moral taint, such as the word kosmos ("world") has, especially in the Johannine writings, and sarx ("flesh"), especially in Paul. It does, however, suggest a certain limitation or frailty; and in some passages, the context gives the adjective epigeios an ethical color, though in the New Testament the purely local meaning is never lost sight of. It is translated "earthly" in the following passages:<P>(1) <a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',3,12);">Joh 3:12</a>, "if I told you earthly things," i.e. things which are realized on earth, things within the circle of human observation, truths of subjective experience (eg. the new birth); in contrast to "heavenly things," the objective truths which, as not directly realizable in human experience, must be revealed from above (the mysteries of the Divine purpose and plans). Clearly "earthly" here implies no moral contrast to the heavenly or spiritual.<P>(2) <a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',5,1);">2Co 5:1</a>, "the earthly house of our tabernacle," i.e. the body with which we are clothed on earth, in contrast to the spiritual resurrection-body, "which is from heaven" (verse <a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',5,2);">2</a>). Here again the word has a merely local, not an ethical, significance.<P>(3) <a onClick="return mV(\'Phl\',3,19);">Php 3:19</a>, "whose glory is in their shame, who mind earthly things," i.e. whose thoughts rest on earth, on the pleasures of life here below.<P>(4) <a onClick="return mV(\'Jam\',3,15);">Jas 3:15</a>, "This wisdom is not a wisdom that cometh down from above, but is earthly," i.e. it is on the plane of life on earth, merely human, incapable of ascending to the level of Divine wisdom. In the last two passages, the literal local meaning is still evident, but the word shades off into the moral and suggests that which is opposed to the spiritual in character. The same word is translated "terrestrial" in <a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',15,40);">1Co 15:40</a>, and "things in (the Revised Version (British and American) "on") earth" in <a onClick="return mV(\'Phl\',2,10);">Php 2:10</a> the King James Version has "earthly" in <a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',3,31);">Joh 3:31</a>, where it translates ek tes ges = literally, "out of the earth," the reference being to the character and mission of the Baptist as partaking of the limitations of his earthly (human) origin, in contrast to the Messiah "that cometh from heaven." The the King James Version rendering is somewhat misleading, for it introduces a confusion with the "earthly" of <a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',3,12);">Joh 3:12</a> (see Westcott in the place cited.). The Revised Version (British and American) rightly renders "of the earth."<P>"Earthly" is to be distinguished from "earthy" = made of earth or clay (choikos, from chous, "earth dug out," <a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',15,47);">1Co 15:47</a>ff).``49';
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isbe[2852]='Earthquake`urth\'-kwak (ra\'ash; seismos):<P>1. Earthquakes in Palestine: The last earthquake which worked any damage in Palestine and Syria occurred in 1837, and destroyed the village of Safed, near Mt. Hermon, and was felt even all the way to Hebron. Since that time a few feeble shocks have been felt but no damage was done. The region is just on the edge of the great earthquake circle whose center is in Armenia, and is liable to earthquakes. The large number of references in the Bible to earthquakes, and the evident fear in the minds of the people of those times, would seem to indicate that they were more frequent in Bible times than recently.<P>2. Causes of Earthquakes: There are three main causes of earthquakes:<P>(1) Earthslips. In the slow process of cooling, the crust of the earth tends to wrinkle and fold as it contracts. This causes a stress to be set up in the strata composing the crust. If the strata are too rigid to bend there must come after a time a break or fault. The shock caused by the break, which is usually several miles below the surface of the earth, is an earthquake, and it spreads in the form of earth waves from the break as center. Seismographs in all parts of the world are now adjusted to receive the waves even though the origin is on the opposite side of the earth.<P>(2) Explosion of Steam or Gases under the Surface. Some earthquakes, especially those underneath the sea, are thought to be caused by water seeping through the soil and rocks and finding its way to the heated masses below. Steam is formed and if there is no escape for it, an explosion takes place whose force is felt on the surface.<P>(3) Volcanic. As earthquakes are of common occurrence in volcanic regions it seems likely that there is some connection between the two, but the relation has not been fully traced. It may be that the second cause is the origin of both the volcano and earthquake.<P>See further, <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=DELUGE+OF+NOAH">DELUGE OF NOAH</a>.<P>3. Earthquakes in Jerusalem: Many destructive earthquakes have been recorded in the history of Syria, but they have been mostly in the north, in the region of Aleppo. Jerusalem itself has seldom been affected by earthquakes. The Hauran beyond the Jordan is covered with volcanic remains and signs of violent shocks, and the cities on the coast have suffered much, but Jerusalem on the higher ground between has usually escaped with little destruction.<P>4. Earthquakes in Scripture: A number of earthquakes are mentioned in the Scriptures:<p class="in15">(1) At Mount Sinai (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',19,18);">Ex 19:18</a>);<p class="in15">(2) Korah and companions destroyed in fissure and sinking ground (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',16,31);">Nu 16:31</a> Ant, IV, iii, 3);<p class="in15">(3) in the Philistine camp in the days of Saul (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',14,15);">1Sa 14:15</a>);<p class="in15">(4) after Elijah\'s flight (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',19,11);">1Ki 19:11</a>);<p class="in15">(5) in the reign of Uzziah, between 790 and 740 BC (<a onClick="return mV(\'Amo\',1,1);">Am 1:1</a>); <a onClick="return mV(\'Zec\',14,5);">Zec 14:5</a> probably refers to the same (Ant., IX, x, 4);<p class="in15">(6) at Christ\'s death (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',27,\'51-54\');">Mt 27:51-54</a>);<p class="in15">(7) at Christ\'s resurrection (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',28,2);">Mt 28:2</a>);<p class="in15">(8) at Philippi when Paul and Silas were freed from prison (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',16,26);">Ac 16:26</a>).<p>Most of these shocks seem to have been slight and caused little loss of life. Josephus mentions one in the reign of Herod, "such as had not happened at any other time, which was very destructive to men and cattle" (Ant., XV, v, 2). Professor G. A. Smith in his recent work on Jerusalem is of the opinion that earthquakes were sufficiently frequent and strong to account for the appearance and disappearance of Nehemiah\'s Fountain (Jerus, I, 74). The Hebrew ra\'ash is commonly used to mean a great noise. Large earthquakes are sometimes accompanied by a rumbling noise, but as a rule they come silently and without warning.<P>5. Symbolic Use: In the Scriptures earthquakes are mentioned as tokens of God\'s power (<a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',9,6);">Job 9:6</a>) and of His presence and anger (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',68,8);">Ps 68:8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',18,7);">18:7</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',13,13);">Isa 13:13</a>): "She shall be visited of Yahweh of hosts....with earthquake, and great noise" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',29,6);">Isa 29:6</a>); also as a sign of Christ\'s "coming, and of the end of the world" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',24,\'3-7\');">Mt 24:3-7</a>). See also <a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',11,13,19);">Re 11:13, 19</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',16,18);">16:18</a>.<P>LITERATURE. Milne, Earthquakes (Inter. Scient. series); Plumptre, Biblical Studies, 136; Dutton, Earthquakes.``85';
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isbe[2853]='Ease`ez (sha\'anan, shal\'anan, chiefly, "at ease"):<P>Used 19 times in the Old Testament and once in the New Testament, most frequently meaning tranquillity, security or comfort of mind; in an ethical sense, indicating carelessness or indifference with reference to one\'s moral or religious interests.<P>The prophet Jeremiah used the phrase as an indication of national or tribal indifference: "Moab hath been at ease from his youth" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',48,11);">Jer 48:11</a>); "I am very sore displeased with the nations that are at ease" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Zec\',1,15);">Zec 1:15</a>). Frequent allusions are made also by various prophets to individuals or groups of individuals, as "Woe to them that are at ease in Zion" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Amo\',6,1);">Am 6:1</a>); "Rise up, ye women that are at ease" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',32,9);">Isa 32:9</a>), and "Tremble, ye women that are at ease" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',32,11);">Isa 32:11</a>).<P>The word in another form is used also in a verbal sense and to apply to physical ease and comfort, as "My couch shall ease my complaint" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',7,13);">Job 7:13</a> compare especially <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',10,4,9);">2Ch 10:4, 9</a>). Simple mental tranquillity or peace of mind is also expressed by it (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',46,27);">Jer 46:27</a>).<P>The single instance of its use in the New Testament is illustrative of its figurative but most common usage in the Old Testament, where it refers to moral indifference in the parable of the Rich Fool: "Soul...take thine ease, eat, drink, be merry" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',12,19);">Lu 12:19</a>).``25';
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isbe[2854]='East (Eastern), Sea`es\'-tern (<a onClick="return mV(\'Zec\',14,8);">Zec 14:8</a>).`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=DEAD+SEA">DEAD SEA</a>`1';
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isbe[2855]='East Country`kun\'-tri (\'erets mizrach):<P>Lit. "country of the sunrise" over against the "country of the sunset" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Zec\',8,7);">Zec 8:7</a>). The two together form a poetical expression indicating the whole earth.``1';
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isbe[2856]='East Gate``<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=GATE+EAST">GATE, EAST</a>`1';
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isbe[2857]='East Wind``<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=WIND">WIND</a>`1';
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isbe[2858]='East, Children of the`est, (mizrach, qedhem, qedhem, and other derivatives of the same root; anatole):<P>Mizrach is the equivalent of the Arabic meshriq, "the orient" or "place of sunrise." In the same way ma\'arabh, "west," corresponds to the Arabic maghrib, and both mizrach and ma\'arabh occur in <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',103,12);">Ps 103:12</a>: "As far as the east is from the west, so far hath he removed our transgressions from us." Qadham, "to precede" (whence qedhem, "east"), and its derivatives correspond closely to the Arabic qadham, except that the Arabic derivatives do not include the signification "east." In the majority of cases "east" and other words of direction require no explanation, but the expressions "the children of the east" (bene qedhem), "the land of the children of the east" (\'erets bene qedhem), and "the east country" (\'erets qedhem), belong to a different category. In the story of Gideon (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',6,3,13);">Jud 6:3, 13</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',7,12);">7:12</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',8,10);">8:10</a>), we find several times the expression "the Midianites and the Amalekites and the children of the east." In <a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',8,24);">Jud 8:24</a> it is said of the same host: "For they Go up to Kedar, and destroy the children of the east. Their tents and had golden earrings, because they were Ishmaelites." In <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',49,28,29);">Jer 49:28-29</a>: "Go up to Kedar, and destroy the children of the east. Their tents and their flocks shall they take." In <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',25,6);">Ge 25:6</a>: "But unto the sons of the concubines, that Abraham had, Abraham gave gifts; and he sent them away from Isaac his son, while he yet lived, eastward, unto the east country." Now Ishmael is the son of Abraham and Hagar, Midian of Abraham and Keturah, Kedar the son of Ishmael, and Amalek the grandson of Esau, dwelling in Edom. It is evident that we have to do with the Syrian desert and in a general way with Arabia, especially its northern part, and with peoples like the modern Bedouin who kept camels and dwelt in tents, \'houses of hair\' (buyut sha\'r), as they are called by the Arabs of today.<P>A striking passage is <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',29,1);">Ge 29:1</a>: "Then Jacob went on his journey, and came to the land of the children of the east." As one journeys eastward through the country east of the Jordan he traverses first a region of towns and villages with fields of grain, and then the wide desert where the Bedouin wander with their herds. The line is a sharp one. Within a very few hours he passes from the settled part where the rain, though scanty, is sufficient to bring the grain to maturity, to the bare desert.<P>Job was "the greatest of all the children of the east" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',1,3);">Job 1:3</a>). These desert people had a name for wisdom as we see from <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',4,30);">1Ki 4:30</a>, "Solomon\'s wisdom excelled the wisdom of all the children of the east, and all the wisdom of Egypt"; and from <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',2,1);">Mt 2:1</a>: "Now when Jesus was born...Wisemen from the east came."``37';
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isbe[2859]='Easter`es\'-ter (pascha, from Aramaic paccha\' and Hebrew pecach, the Passover festival):<P>The English word comes from the Anglo-Saxon Eastre or Estera, a Teutonic goddess to whom sacrifice was offered in April, so the name was transferred to the paschal feast.<P>The word does not properly occur in Scripture, although the King James Version has it in <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',12,4);">Ac 12:4</a> where it stands for Passover, as it is rightly rendered in the Revised Version (British and American). There is no trace of Easter celebration in the New Testament, though some would see an intimation of it in <a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',5,7);">1Co 5:7</a>. The Jewish Christians in the early church continued to celebrate the Passover, regarding Christ as the true paschal lamb, and this naturally passed over into a commemoration of the death and resurrection of our Lord, or an Easter feast. This was preceded by a fast, which was considered by one party as ending at the hour of the crucifixion, i.e. at 3 o\'clock on Friday, by another as continuing until the hour of the resurrection before dawn on Easter morning. Differences arose as to the time of the Easter celebration, the Jewish Christians naturally fixing it at the time of the Passover feast which was regulated by the paschal moon. According to this reckoning it began on the evening of the 14th day of the moon of the month of Nican without regard to the day of the week, while the GentileChristians identified it with the first day of the week, i.e. the Sunday of the resurrection, irrespective of the day of the month. This latter practice finally prevailed in the church, and those who followed the other reckoning were stigmatized as heretics. But differences arose as to the proper Sunday for the Easter celebration which led to long and bitter controversies. The Council of Nice, 325 AD, decreed that it should be on Sunday, but did not fix the particular Sunday. It was left to the bishop of Alexandria to determine, since that city was regarded as the authority in astronomical matters and he was to communicate the result of his determination to the other bishops.<P>But this was not satisfactory, especially to the western churches, and a definite rule for the determination of Easter was needed. By some it was kept as early as March 21, and by others as late as April 25, and others followed dates between. The rule was finally adopted, in the 7th century, to celebrate Easter on the Sunday following the 14th day of the calendar moon which comes on, or after, the vernal equinox which was fixed for March 21. This is not always the astronomical moon, but near enough for practical purposes, and is determined without astronomical calculation by certain intricate rules adopted by ecclesiastical authority. These rules involve the Dominical Letters, or the first seven of the alphabet, representing the days of the week, A standing for the first day of the year and the one on which Sunday falls being called the Dominical for that year. There are also involved the Golden Numbers and the Epacts, the first being the numbers from 1 to 19, the cycle of the moon when its phases recur on the same days of the year, the first of the cycle being that in which the new moon falls on January 1. The Epacts indicate the moon\'s age at the beginning of each year. Easter was thus fixed by these rules, but another difficulty arose when the Gregorian calendar was adopted in 1582, the difference between it and the Julian being then 10 days. This of course affected the determination of Easter, and its celebration by the Greek church, which has never admitted the Gregorian calendar, occurs usually at a different time from that followed by the western churches. This difference may be as much as five weeks and it may occur as late as April 30, while in the West it cannot occur later than April 25 nor earlier than March 22. Occasionally the two come together but this is rare, since the difference between the two calendars is now 13 days.<P>The Easter feast has been and still is regarded as the greatest in the Christian church, since it commemorates the most important event in the life of its Founder.``138';
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isbe[2860]='Ebal, Mount`e\'-bal, (har \'ebhal; Gaibal):<P>Rises north of the vale of Shechem, over against Mt. Gerizim on the south. The mountain (Arabic el-Iclamiyeh) reaches a height of 1,402 ft. above the floor of the valley, and 3,077 ft. above the level of the Mediterranean. The Samaritans feign that Gerizim is the higher; but it is more than 200 ft. lower than Ebal. These two mountains overhang the pass through which runs the main artery of intercourse between East and West, the city of Nablus lying in the throat of the valley to the west. The ancient Shechem probably stood farther to the east. The lower slopes of Ebal as one ascends from Nablus are covered with gardens and orchards, the copious streams from the fountains under Gerizim washing its foot, and spreading fertility and beauty. The vine, the fig and the olive grow luxuriantly. Higher up we scramble over rough rocky terraces, where grow only the ubiquitous thistles and prickly shrubs.<P>From the broad summit a view of surpassing interest and beauty rewards the climber\'s toil. Westward beyond the hills and the plain of Sharon with its coast line of yellow sand running from Jaffa to Carmel, stretch the blue waters of the Mediterranean. From Carmel to Gilboa, Little Hermon and Tabor, roll the fruitful breadths of Esdraelon: the uplands of Galilee, with Nazareth showing on the brow above the plain, rise away to the buttresses of Lebanon in the North. From the snowy peak of Hermon the eye ranges over the Jaulan and Mount Gilead to the Mountain of Bashan in the east, with the steep eastern wall of the Jordan valley in the foreground. The land of Moab is visible beyond the Dead Sea; and the heights around Jerusalem close the view on the south.<P>Round this splendid mountain, seen from afar on all sides, religious associations have gathered from old time. The Moslem Weley on the top<6F>the usual white-domed sanctuary<72>where it is said the head of the Baptist is buried, is doubtless the modern representative of some ancient seat of worship. The ruins of a church show that Christians also came under the spell of the hill.<P>The slopes of Ebal toward Gerizim played their part in that memorable scene, when, having conquered the central region of Palestine, Joshua led the people hither, erected an altar of unhewn stones, wrote upon the stones<65>either engraving on the stone itself, or impressing on plaster placed there for the purpose<73>a copy of the law, and then, as Moses the servant of the Lord had commanded, placed half the tribes on the slope of Gerizim, and half on those of Ebal, and the ark with the priests and Levites in the center. Then with dramatic responses from the two divisions of the people, the blessings and the cursings of the law were read (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',8,30);">Jos 8:30</a>ff; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',27,11);">De 27:11</a>ff). In all the future, therefore, this mountain, towering aloft in the very heart of the land, would remind beholders far and near of their people\'s covenant with God. It has sometimes been questioned if the reading of the law could be heard by the people in the way described. The formation of the sides of the valley at the narrowest part, and the acoustics, which have been tested more than once, leave no reasonable doubt as to the possibility.<P>The importance of the mountain from a military point of view is illustrated by the ruins of a massive fortress found on the summit.``54';
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isbe[2861]='Ebal; Obal`e\'-bal (\'ebhal, "bare") or (\'obhal):<P>(1) A people and region of Joktanite, Arabia. See Dillmann, Genesis, and Glaser, Skizze, II, 426. The latter form of the name is that given in <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',10,28);">Ge 10:28</a>, the former in <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',1,22);">1Ch 1:22</a> and in the Samaritan text of <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',10,28);">Ge 10:28</a>.<P>(2) A son of Shobal, son of Seir, the Horite (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',36,23);">Ge 36:23</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',1,40);">1Ch 1:40</a>).``1';
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isbe[2862]='Ebed`e\'-bed (\'ebhedh, "servant"):<P>(1) Father of Gaal, who rebelled against Abimelech (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',9,\'26-35\');">Jud 9:26-35</a>).<P>(2) A companion of Ezra in his return (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ezr\',8,6);">Ezr 8:6</a>) = Obeth (1Esdras 8:32).``1';
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isbe[2863]='Ebed-Melech`e-bed-me\'-lek, eb-ed-me\'-lek (\'ebhedh-mekekh, "servant of the king" or "of (god) Melek"):<P>An Ethiopian eunuch in the service of King Zedekiah, who interceded with the king for the prophet Jeremiah and rescued him from the dungeon into which he had been cast to die (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',38,\'7-13\');">Jer 38:7-13</a>). For this, the word of Yahweh through Jeremiah promised Ebed-meleeh that his life should be spared in the fall of Jerusalem (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',39,\'15-18\');">Jer 39:15-18</a>).``1';
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isbe[2864]='Eben-Bohan``<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=BOHAN">BOHAN</a>`1';
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isbe[2865]='Eben-Ezel``<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=EZEL">EZEL</a>`1';
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isbe[2866]='Eben-Ezer`eb-en-e\'-zer (\'ebhen ha-\'ezer, "stone of the help"; Abenezer):<P>(1) Here Israel was defeated by the Philistines, 4,000 men falling in the battle (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',4,1);">1Sa 4:1</a>ff). It appears also to have been the scene of the disaster when the ark of God was captured (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',4,3);">1Sa 4:3</a>ff). The place is not identified. It was over against Aphek; but this site is also unknown (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',12,18);">Jos 12:18</a>). Eusebius, Onomasticon places it between Jerusalem and Ascalon, in the neighborhood of Beth-shemesh. Conder suggests Deir Aban, fully 2 miles east of \'Ain Shems (PEF, III, 24).<P>(2) A stone set up by Samuel to perpetuate the memory of the signal victory granted to Israel over the Philistines in answer to his prayer (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',7,12);">1Sa 7:12</a>). It stood between Mizpeh and Shen. The latter is probably identical with \'Ain Sinia, north of Bethel. This defines the district in which it may be found; but no identification is yet possible.``54';
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isbe[2867]='Eber`e\'-ber (\'ebher; Eber, in Genesis; Obed, in Chronicles):<P>(1) Occurs in the genealogies (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',10,21,25);">Ge 10:21-25</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',11,14);">11:14</a>ff) as the great-grandson of Shem and father of Peleg and Joktan. The word means "the other side," "across," and the form "Hebrew," which is derived from it, is intended to denote the people or tribe who came "from the other, side of the river" (i.e. the Euphrates), from Haran (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',11,31);">Ge 11:31</a>), whence Abraham and his dependents migrated to Canaan.<P>(2) A Gadite (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',5,13);">1Ch 5:13</a>).<P>(3) & (4) Two Benjamites (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',8,12,22);">1Ch 8:12, 22</a>).<P>(5) The head of a priestly family (<a onClick="return mV(\'Neh\',12,20);">Ne 12:20</a>).``68';
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isbe[2868]='Ebez`e\'-bez (\'ebhets, meaning unknown; Rhebes; the King James Version Abez):<P>One of the 16 cities in Issachar (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',19,20);">Jos 19:20</a>). The name seems to be cognate to that of the judge Ibzan (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',12,\'8-10\');">Jud 12:8-10</a>). All else concerning it is conjecture.``1';
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isbe[2869]='Ebiasaph`e-bi\'-a-saf:<P>A descendant of Kohath the son of Levi (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',6,37);">1Ch 6:37</a>).`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ABIASAPH">ABIASAPH</a>`1';
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isbe[2870]='Ebionism; Ebionites`e\'-bi-o-niz\'-m, e\'-bio-nits (Ebionaioi, from \'ebhyonim, "poor people"):<P>Contents<P><b>General Statement</b><P><b>I. ORIGIN OF THE NAME</b><P class="in15">1. The Poor Ones <P class="in15">2. Origin of the Name<P><b>II. AUTHORITIES FOR THE OPINIONS OF THE EBIONITES</b><P class="in15">1. Irenaeus, Tertullian and Hippolytus<P class="in15">2. Origen and Jerome<P class="in15">3. Epiphanius\' Description<P class="in15">4. Justin Martyr<P><b>III. LITERATURE OF THE EBIONITES</b><P class="in15">1. The Gospel According to the <span class="noTag">Hebrews</span><P class="in15">2. The Clementines<P class="in15">3. Apocalyptic Literature<P><b>IV. HISTORY OF EBIONISM</b><P class="in15">1. Ebionites and Essenes<P class="in15">2. Organization of Ebionites<P><b>V. EVIDENCE FROM EBIONISM FOR THE DOCTRINE OF THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH</b><P class="in15">1. Christology of the Early Church<P class="in15">2. Paulinism of the Early Church<P>LITERATURE<hr /><P>General Statement:<P>The Ebionites were a sect of heretics frequently mentioned by the early Fathers. In regard to their opinions, as in regard to those of most early heretical sects, there is the difficulty that to a large extent we are dependent for our information on their opponents. These opponents were not generally very careful to apprehend exactly the views of those whose opinions they undertook to refute. It adds to the difficulty in the present case that there is a dubiety as to the persons designated by the title. Sometimes, it is admitted, the name was used to designate all Jewish Christians irrespective of their opinions; at other times it denotes a sect akin to the Gnostics, who ascribed a purely human origin to our Lord.<P>There are, however, certain works, the Clementine writings, which from statements of the Fathers may be assumed to represent the views of this sect, but as these represent views to some extent divergent, it is difficult to decide which is the truly Ebionitic. There are also certain apocalyptic books which present affinities with Ebionism. The quotations from the Gospel according to the Hebrews<77>the only gospel the Ebionites received<65>likewise afford means of appreciating their views. This gospel has come down to us only in isolated quotations, for the accuracy of which we have no guarantee. Finally, it has to be borne in mind that no sect can persist through centuries of changing circumstances, and not in turn undergo change.<P>I. Origin of the Name.<P>1. The Poor Ones:<P>Tertullian and Epiphanius assume the sect to have received its name from a certain Ebion or Hebion. Others of the Fathers, without affirming it, use language which seems to imply the belief in a person called Ebion. This, however, is generally now regarded as a mistake. No trace of the existence of such a person is to be found. The sect in question seems to have assumed the name Ebionites, "the poor ones," from the first Beatitude (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',5,3);">Mt 5:3</a>), claiming to be the continuation into the new dispensation of the "poor and needy" of the Psalms, eg. <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',69,33);">Psalm 69:33</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',70,5);">70:5</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',74,21);">74:21</a>.<P>It has been mooted that the sect may have had a leader who assumed the title the poor man. Besides that we have no trace of his existence, the name would almost certainly have been treated as an Aramaic word and put in the status emphaticus as Ebiona, which in Greek would have become Ebionas.<P>2. Origin of the Name:<P>The ordinary view of the origin of the name has the advantage of analogy in its favor. The pre-Reformation Protestants of the 12th and 13th centuries in France called themselves "the poor men" (of Lyons). The fact that the apostle James in his Epistle implies a natural union between poverty and piety (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jam\',2,5);">2:5</a>), "Did not God choose them that are poor as to the world to be rich in faith...?" would confirm the Jewish Christians in their use of the name.<P>Some have been inclined to press unduly a play on the name in which some of the Fathers indulge, as if the poor views of this sect as to the person of Christ had led to their receiving this name from without.<P>II. Authorities for the Opinions of the Ebionites.<P>1. Irenaeus, Tertullian and Hippolytus:<P>As indicated above, the main authorities for these are Irenaeus, Tertullian and Hippolytus. The characteristics of the Ebionites noted by them were, first, the negative one that they did not, like the other Gnostics, distinguish between the Supreme God and the Creator of the world<6C>the demiurge<67>who was identified with the God of the Jews. With them Yahweh was the Supreme God<6F>the God of Israel and the Creator of the heavens and the earth. The second characteristic, also negative, was that they denied the supernatural birth of our Lord. He was the son of Joseph and Mary in the ordinary sense of the word. The third was that they, along with the Cerinthians and Carpocratians, affirmed that a Divine power came down on Jesus at His baptism<73>the reward of His perfect holiness. According to one form of theory, the Holy Ghost was the eternal Son of God. Another view was that the power which descended upon Him was the Divine wisdom, the Logos. By the influence of this Divine power He performed miracles and taught with superhuman wisdom. But this Divine influence deserted Jesus on the Cross, hence, the cry of being forsaken (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',27,46);">Mt 27:46</a>). The Divine power, however, raised Him from the dead and caused Him to ascend on high. Hippolytus brings the Ebionites into close connection with the Elkasaites and with a certain Alcibiades, whose views he had to combat in Rome. The last claimed to found his views on a work of Elkasai.<P>2. Origen and Jerome:<P>From two other sources we derive further information: Origen and Jerome both notify the fact that the Ebionites translated \'almah "young woman" (it is rendered "virgin" in our the King James Version and the Revised Version (British and American)). This translation, so far as the mere word is concerned, is indubitably correct. There is another point in which both afford us information. The first says (Contra Celsum, v.61) that there are two classes of Ebionites, one of which denies the miraculous conception and birth of our Lord, the other of which affirms it. Jerome, in his letter to Augustine, not only asserts the same thing but calls the one class, those affirming the miraculous birth, Nazareans, and the other Ebionites. Origen in his second book against Celsus speaks as if the only distinction between the Ebionites and other Christians was their obedience to the Mosaic law, and by their example rebuts the assertion that the Jews in becoming Christians deserted the law of their fathers. Another feature of Ebionism presented to us by Jerome (In Jesaiam, lxvi.24) is their chiliastic view<65>the personal reign of our Lord for 1,000 years as the Jewish Messiah.<P>3. Epiphanius\' Description:<P>The writer who gives the most voluminous account of the Ebionites<65>"Ebionaeans" as he calls them<65>is Epiphanius. With him it is at once heresy No. X and heresy No. XXX. Before discussing the Ebionites he takes up the closely related sect of the Nazareans as heresy No. XXIX. He had already in a more compendious way considered a similarly named sect, numbering it No. XVIII. It, however, is Jewish while this is Christian. The Jewish sect is distinguished by eating no animal food and offering no sacrifices. They have thus an affinity with the Essenes. They have a peculiarity that, while they honored the patriarchs, they rejected the Pentateuch which related their history. These Nazareans dwelt east of the Jordan in Gilead and Bashan. Heresy No. XXIX is the Christian Nazareans. This name had been at first applied to all Christians. Epiphanius identifies them with the Essenes and declares their distinguishing peculiarity to be the retention of circumcision and the ceremonial law. They use the Gospel of Matthew but without the genealogies. As Heresy No. XXX he proceeds to consider the Ebionites. Ebion, Epiphanius assumes to have been a man, and calls him a "polymorphic portent," and asserts that he was connected with the Samaritans, the Essenes, the Cerinthians and Carpocratians, yet desired to be regarded a Christian. The heresy originated after the flight of the church to Pella. They denied the miraculous birth of our Lord, but maintained that a Divine influence came down upon Him at His baptism. This Divine wisdom had inspired, and in a sense dwelt, in all the patriarchs. In some sense the body of Jesus was regarded as that of Adam revived. This body was crucified and rose again. They receive only the Gospel of Matthew in the form the Cerinthians use it, i.e. the Gospel according to the Hebrews. Epiphanius gives some account of this gospel and its defects. They use also other books; one which he especially describes, The Journeyings of Peter, appears to be in the main identical with the Clementine Homilies. He connects the Ebionites, as does Hippolytus, with Elkasai; from him they learned that the heavenly Christ was 96 miles high and 24 broad, and that the Holy Ghost had a female form of similar dimensions, only invisible. Although he connects the Ebionites with the Essenes he mentions that, unlike the Essenes of Josephus and Philo, the Ebionites not only permitted but enjoined matrimony on young men. Epiphanius adds as an especial enormity that the Ebionites permit second, third and even seventh marriages. Although they enjoin marriage they have a low opinion of women, crediting Eve with originating heathenism, in this agreeing with the Essenian opinion of the sex. Mysteriously Epiphanius represents, the Ebionites as not only rejecting the prophets in a body but deriding them. He also mentions the rejection of Paul by the Ebionites. It is exceedingly difficult to form a clear, self-consistent view of the doctrines of the Ebionites from the statements of Epiphanius, yet there are points in which his information is of value.<P>4. Justin Martyr:<P>Though Justin Martyr does not name the Ebionites in his dialogue with Trypho the Jew (47), he mentions two classes of Jewish Christians:<P>(a) those who not only themselves observe the law but would compel the Gentile believers also to be circumcised and keep the whole law, and will hold no communion with those who refuse to become Jews;<P>(b) those who, observing the Mosaic law themselves, enter into communion with uncircumcised Gentile believers.<P>The former appear to be an early form of Ebionites. It is to be noted that Justin does not ascribe to them any doctrinal divergence from the orthodox views. In the following chapter he mentions some that denied the divinity of our Lord, but these were Gentiles (hemeterougenous) "of our race."<P>III. Literature of the Ebionites.<P>One thing of importance we do owe to Epiphanius<75>the indication of the literature produced by the Ebionites, from which we may get their views at first hand. This includes the Gospel according to the Hebrews, the Clementines (Homilies and Recognitions); to which we would add the Ascension of Isaiah and the Odes of Solomon. It may be remarked that this literature appears to represent the opinion of different classes of the Ebionites. We shall merely consider here the bearing these works have on the Ebionites.<P>1. The Gospel According to the Hebrews:<P>The Gospel according to the Hebrews we know only through quotations. We can have no certainty that these quotations are accurate. The quotations may have been interpolated, and further the book from which the quotations have been made has probably passed through several recensions. The discussion of the question of the relation of this book to the canonical Gospel of Matthew is considered elsewhere (see <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=APOCRYPHAL+GOSPELS">APOCRYPHAL GOSPELS</a>). One thing is clear, there were at least two recensions of this gospel, one nearer and the other farther from the canonical Gospel; the former, the Nazarean, differed only by omitting the genealogy from the First Gospel of the Canon. The other was more strictly Ebionite and omitted all mention of the miraculous birth. The Ebionite recension began, as Epiphanius tells us, abruptly with the calling of the Apostles. The assertion of Epiphanius that the Ebionites rejected the prophets is supported by a quotation from the Gospel according to the Hebrews in Jerome (Adv. Pelag., iii.2): "In the prophets, after they were anointed by the Spirit, sin was found." The change from akridas ("locusts") to egkridas (literally, "cakes of honey and oil"; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',16,31);">Ex 16:31</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',11,8);">Nu 11:8</a>) in the account of the food of John may be due to the avoidance of animal food attributed to this sect. One passage, which appears to be a denunciation of wealth in itself, is an addition of a second rich man to the story of the young ruler of the synagogue. A singular verse, quoted from this gospel both by Origen and Jerome, deserves special notice for several reasons: "My mother, the Holy Ghost, took me by one of my hairs and bore me to the great mountain Tabor." The designation of the Holy Ghost as "my mother" is unexampled. It implies a materialistic view of the doctrine of the Trinity after the form of a human family. It is a note of geographical ignorance to call Tabor a "great" mountain. It is only some 2,000 ft. high and behind it are the mountains of the hill country of Galilee rising up to 4,000 ft. in Jebel Jermuk, and behind that the white top of Hermon, 10,000 ft. It is difficult to understand anyone resident in Palestine calling Tabor a "great" mountain. Rising from the plain of Esdraelon it is prominent, but with the higher mountains behind it, it could not even seem great. In a quotation by Jerome (Adv. Pelag., iii.2) our Lord declares Himself unwilling to be baptized by John as unconscious of sin. This suits the representation of Ebionite views which we find in Irenaeus that it was His sinlessness that made Jesus capable of receiving the Holy Ghost.<P>2. The Clementines:<P>The Clementine literature attributed by Epiphanius to the Ebionites is a more important source of information for their opinions. It has come down to us complete in three or four forms, the Homilies, the Recognitions, and two Epitomes which, however, differ less than the two larger works. They all seem to be recensions of an earlier work which has disappeared. The foundation of all of these is a species of religious novel on which are grafted sermons of Peter and his discussions with Simon Magus. Clement, a young Roman orphan of rank in search of a religion, meets Barnabas, who tells him of Christ, describing Him as the "Son of God," and says that He had appeared in Judea. To learn more about Jesus, Clement proceeds to Caesarea, where he meets Peter. He thereafter accompanies Peter to the various places whither the apostle pursues Simon Magus, and in course of his journeyings he meets and recognizes his father, his brother and his mother; hence, the title Recognitions. It is in the discourses of Peter that the Ebionism appears. Its theology is fundamentally Jewish and Essenian. That it is Judaizing is evidenced by the covert hostility to the apostle Paul. There are elements that are not those of orthodox Judaism. The Messiah is coequal, or nearly so, with the devil; in other words, the position is a modification of Parseeism (Hom., III, 5). If the discourse of Barnabas is excluded, our Lord is always called the "prophet" (Hom.), the "Teacher" (Recog.). He is never asserted nor assumed to be Divine. Nothing is said of His miraculous birth. At the same time in the Recognitions He is regarded as not merely man. It is said He "assumed a Jewish body" (Recog, I, 60). This agrees with what Epiphanius says of the Ebionite idea that it was as the body of Adam that the Christ appeared. The apostle Peter, who is represented as the model Christian, eats only herbs and practices frequent ablutions, quite in the manner of the Essenes. In his discourses Peter declares that the true prophet "quenches the fire of altars and represses war." These are Essenian peculiarities, but he "sanctions marriage," against Essenism as we find it in Philo and Josephus The phrase implies an opposition to some who not only did not sanction, but forbade, marriage (Hom., III, 26).<P>3. Apocalyptic Literature:<P>If the ignoring of the work and apostleship of Paul be regarded as the criterion of the Judaizers, that is to say, the Ebionites, then in apocalyptic literature we find works from which we can draw information as to views. The Ascension of Isaiah was one of the earliest of these books to be recovered in modern times. The writer refers to the martyrdom of Peter in Rome, but makes no mention of Paul (IV, 3). The description of elders and shepherds hating one another (III, 29), "lawless elders and unjust shepherds who will ravage their sheep" (III, 24), seems a view of the church\'s state as it appeared to a Judaizer when the Pauline view was prevailing. Notwithstanding this not only is the Divine dignity maintained, but the doctrine of the Trinity, "They all glorified the Father of all and His beloved Son and the Holy Spirit" (VIII, 18), is affirmed. As to the person of Christ, He descended through the successive heavens to the earth to be born (IX, 13; X, 8-31). The virginity of Mary is affirmed (X, 12), and the child is born without pain, miraculously (XI, 8-14). A similar view of the birth of Christ is to be found in the Odes of Solomon (XIX, 7).<P>IV. History of Ebionism.<P>1. Ebionites and Essenes:<P>All authorities combine in asserting a close connection between the Ebionites and the Essenes. At first sight there are serious points of difference, principally these, the Ebionites enjoined marriage, while the Essenes, if we may believe Philo and Josephus, forbade it. This forbiddal, however, appears to have been true only of the Coenobites of Engedi. Moreover, some of the Judaizers, that is Ebionites, are charged with forbidding to marry (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ti\',4,3);">1Ti 4:3</a>). The Essenes in all their varieties seem to have come over to Christianity on the fall of the Jewish state and the retreat of the church to Pella. When they joined the believers in their exile the Parsee elements began a ferment in the church and Ebionism was one of the products. This probably is the meaning of the statement that Ebion began to teach his doctrines at Pella. If we may judge from the statements of Scripture and from the earliest of the noncanonical apocalypses, the Ebionites were not at first heretical in their Christology. Only they maintained the universal obligation of the ceremonial law, holding that believers of Gentile descent could be received into the church only if they were first circumcised. The keen dialectic of Paul forced them from this position. The abrogation of the Law was closely connected in Paul\'s reasonings with the Divinity of our Lord; consequently some of them may have felt that they could maintain their views more easily by denying His supreme Divinity and the reality of the incarnation. The phenomena of His life rendered it impossible for anyone to declare Him to be merely man. Hence, the complex notion of a Divine influence<63>an eon, coming down upon Him. If, however, His birth were miraculous, then the supreme greatness of Moses would be impugned, consequently they were led to deny the virgin birth.<P>Not till Theodotus appeared was the purely humanitarian view of our Lord\'s person maintained. All the Hebrew Christians, however, did not pursue the above course. A large section remained at each general stage, and to the end one portion, the Nazareans, maintained their orthodox doctrinal position, and at the same time obeyed the requirements of the Law. The dualism which is found in the Clementines is an endeavor to explain the power of evil in the world and the function of Satan. The Clementines confirm the statement of the Fathers that the Ebionites used only the Gospel of Mark, for there are more quotations from Matthew than from all the other books of the New Testament put together: These quotations are, however, all from chapters after the 3rd chapter. There are, it is to be noted, several unmistakable quotations from the Fourth Gospel. In the Clementines as noticed above there is an avoidance of attributing Divinity to our Lord. He is the Teacher, the Prophet; only in the discourse ascribed to Barnabas is He called the Son of God. This, we are aware, is the reverse of the ordinarily received idea of the historic succession of beliefs. It is thought that, beginning with the belief in the purely ordinary nature of our Lord\'s birth, these Jewish believers gradually added feature after feature until He was regarded as a Divine person, the Divine Logos made flesh by miraculous conception and birth. The abstract possibility of such being the course of events is not denied, but we do say that what evidence we have tends in the direction we have taken. There are elements kindred to Ebionism in the Epistle of James, the prominence given to the poor, the little prominence given to the Divinity of Our Lord or to the doctrines of grace all tend in that direction. Yet there is no developed Ebionism; the Divinity of Christ, if not stated in terms, is implied. Schwegler, followed in more recent times by Dr. Campbell of Dundee, finds a strong Ebionite bias in the Gospel of Luke, in which certainly there is no lessening of our Lord\'s supreme Divinity. All that it amounts to is a prominence given to the poor. The identification of the poor with the righteous has not come down to us as a tenet of the Ebionites; it has been ascribed to them from their name. As already stated in the Ascension of Isaiah, the Divinity of the Messiah is strongly asserted. The farther down the stream of history we go more and more clearly do the Ebionite features appear, till by the time when Alcibiades, the follower of Elkasai, appeared in Rome, we have something widely removed from the Ebionism of the Clementines, far as that is from the simple position occupied by the Nazareans.<P>2. Organization of Ebionites:<P>The Jewish Christians appear to have formed an organization of their own, separate from the church Catholic. The places where they assembled they did not call ekklesiai, "churches," but sunagogai, "synagogues." If we may believe the Clementine Homilies they had evolved a complete episcopal system for themselves. We, however, must not think that every variation of faith had a separate organization for itself. Strict Jewish ceremonial allowed no Jew to eat with any other not a Jew. The "love-feasts" of the early church implied this eating in common. If GentileChristians were present, the Ebionites could not join, hence, the need of a separate church. All Jewish Christians who reverenced the law could meet together and partake of the "love-feast," whatever their belief as to the person of Christ. In short, Ebionism was a thing of individuals, whose opinion ran through the whole gamut of faith, from the Nazareans, who differed from the orthodox simply in remaining Jews, to those whose Judaism alone prevented them from becoming followers of Theodotus of Byzantium, and who therefore sank back into pure Judaism.<P>V. Evidence from Ebionism for the Doctrine of the Primitive Church.<P>1. Christology of the Early Church:<P>In dealing with this branch of our subject we have to consider that the tendency of those who in the early days wrote against heresy was to exaggerate the difference between the heretics and the orthodox. On the other hand we have to consider the psychological difficulty involved in a person recognizing that anyone whom he daily met, whom he saw eating and sleeping like other men, was more than man, was Divine. This difficulty, great to all, was doubly so to the Jew. Yet again we have to consider what the origin of Christian theology was. It was an attempt to give a reasoned and systematic explanation of the phenomenon of Jesus Christ. Christ\'s character, His deeds and His claims had to be explained. The orthodox explanation which gradually became more definite as time rolled on was that He was the second person of the Trinity become incarnate, and the purpose of this incarnation that He might save many from their sins. This purpose He accomplished by dying on the cross and rising again. The primitive church owed its theology to Paul and John. Repugnant as much of this was to the Jews, yet the Ebionites, earnest, prejudiced Jews as they were, could not affirm in the presence of the facts of His career that Jesus was merely a man. They had to imagine a Divine influence coming down upon Him at His baptism, setting Him apart from all others. We have no trace of this at first: it stands at the end of a process of degradation of the ideal concerning the person of Christ. It was only when the effect of His personality had somewhat faded that men began to doubt His Divinity. The division of the personality seems to emerge at the same time. The earlier Ebionites, like the rest of the 1st-century believers, regarded Christ as one person; only later do they reach the notion of a heavenly eon separate from Jesus. The Ebionites seem to have held under varying forms a doctrine of the Trinity, and their holding it is an evidence that the church at large held it, not of course in that definiteness it assumed later, but essentially.<P>2. Paulinism of the Early Church:<P>To some extent the same may be said in regard to the Pauline doctrine of redemption. It is to be observed that both writers, he of the Homilies as well as the writer of the Recognitions, dislike and ignore Paul, even if they do not attempt to pillory him under the image of Simon Magus, as many have thought that they do. What, however, is also to be observed, is that they do not venture to denounce him by name. Paul and his teachings must have been, in the early part of the 2nd century, held in such deep reverence that no one could hope to destroy them by direct assault; the only hope was a flank attack. This reverence for Paul implies the reception of all he taught. All the specially Pauline doctrines of original sin, of redemption through the sacrificial death of Christ, and all the cognate ideas must have been held strongly by the early church or the Ebionites would have denounced Paul in the Clementines by name. Schwegler would argue that Justin Martyr was an Ebionite because he neither mentions nor quotes Paul. To this it may be answered that as the emperors to whom he addressed his apologies were heathens, and Trypho, with whom he had his dialogue, was a Jew, he naturally did not name one whose authority would be valueless to those he was addressing. He is equally silent as to Peter, James and John. If he does not quote Paul there are several indubitable echoes of his phrases and his thoughts.<P>In the face of the recent discoveries made in Egypt one cannot despair of manuscripts turning up which may throw needed light on this heresy. Were the Gospel according to the Hebrews to be found, or a manuscript of Hegesippus, we should be in a better position to decide a number of questions.<P>LITERATURE.<P>Contemporary writers on Ebionites: Irenaeus; Tertullian; Hippolytus; Origen; Eusebius, III, 27; Epiphanius; Jerome; Justin Martyr (Trypho,47,48) refers to the Ebionites without naming them.<P>Ebionite writings: Clementine Homilies; Clementine Recognitions; Clementine Epitomes; Asc Isa; Odes of Solomon. Modern church historians: Neander, General History of the Christian Religion and Church; Schrock, Kirchengeschichte; Walch, Historic der Ketzereien, I, 95-124; Baur, Kirchengeschichte, I, 172-74, and Dogmengeschichte, 140-61, and Christliche Gnosis; Schwegler, Nachapostolisches Zeitalter, 17-198; Ritschl, Altkatholische Kirche, 107-271; Matter, Gnosticisme, III, 11-28; Harnack, History of Dogma, 1-89ff; Reuss, Hist. de la Theologie, I, 115-25; Donaldson, Christian Literature and Doctrine from the Death of the Apostles to the Nicene Council, I, 39ff; Mansel, Gnostic Heresies, 123-26; Helgenfeld, Ketzergeschichte, 421-46, and Clementines.<P>Articles in theological dictionaries: Smith and Wace; RE, 1st, 2nd and 3rd eds; Jewish Encyclopedia; Holtzman u. Zopffel; Lightfoot, Galatians, Disc. III; Colin Campbell, Studies in Luke.``173';
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isbe[2871]='Ebionites, Gospel of the``<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=APOCRYPHAL+GOSPELS">APOCRYPHAL GOSPELS</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=EBIONISM">EBIONISM</a>`1';
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isbe[2872]='Ebony`eb\'-o-ni (hobhnim (pl. only), vocalization uncertain; compare Arabic abnus):<P>Mentioned (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',27,15);">Eze 27:15</a>) along with ivory as merchandise of Tyre brought by the men of Dedan. This is the heavy, black, heart-wood of various species of Diospyros, natives of Southern India and Ceylon; the best kind is obtained from D. ebenum.<P>The sap-wood, being white and valueless, is cut away, but the trunks are sufficiently large to leave blocks of heart-wood 2 ft. in diameter and 10 or more ft. long. Ebony was used by the ancient Egyptians, Greeks and Romans, as well as the Phoenicians, for various purposes; it was frequently inlaid with ivory. In Europe it has been a favorite for cabinet-making down to recent times.``117';
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isbe[2873]='Ebron`e\'-brun (\'ebhron; the King James Version wrongly, Hebron):<P>A town in the territory of Asher (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',19,28);">Jos 19:28</a>). Probably we should read here Abdon, as in <a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',21,30);">Jos 21:30</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',6,74);">1Ch 6:74</a>, the substitution of the Hebrew letter resh ("r") for the Hebrew letter daleth ("d") being a common copyist\'s error.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ABDON">ABDON</a>`1';
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isbe[2874]='Ebronah`e-bro\'-na:<P>In the King James Version (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',33,34,35);">Nu 33:34-35</a>)<P>for <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ABRONAH">ABRONAH</a>, which see.``1';
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isbe[2875]='Ecanus`e-ka\'-nus:<P>the Revised Version (British and American)<P><a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ETHANUS">ETHANUS</a> (which see).``1';
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isbe[2876]='Ecbatana`ek-bat\'-a-na<P>(<a onClick="return mV(\'Ezr\',6,2);">Ezr 6:2</a> margin).`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ACHMETHA">ACHMETHA</a>`1';
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isbe[2877]='Ecce Homo`ek\'-se ho\'-mo (idou ho anthropos, "Behold, the man!" <a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',19,5);">Joh 19:5</a>):<P>Pilate\'s statement regarding Jesus during His trial. While the significance of this statement is somewhat debatable, yet there is little doubt, as judged from his attitude and statement immediately following, that Pilate was endeavoring to appeal to the accusers\' sympathies and to point out to them the manly qualities of Jesus. The ordinary punctuation which places an exclamation point after "Behold" and a period after "the man" is evidently incorrect if the grammatical structure in the Greek is to be observed, which gives to the second and third words the nominative form, and which therefore admits of a mild exclamation, and therefore of the emphasis upon "the man." Some, however, hold the contrary view and maintain that the utterance was made in a spirit of contempt and ridicule, as much as to say, "Behold here a mere man." See especially on this view Marcus Dods in Expositor\'s Greek Testament. It would seem, however, that the former of the two views would be sustained by the chief facts in the case.``25';
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isbe[2878]='Ecclesiastes, the Preacher`e-kle-zi-as\'-tez, or (qoheleth; Ekklesiastes, perhaps "member of assembly"; see below):<P>Contents<P>1. Structure of the Book<P>2. The Contents<P>3. Composite Authorship?<P>4. Qoheleth<P>5. "King in Jerusalem"<P>6. Date and Authorship<P>7. Linguistic Peculiarities<P>8. Certain Inconclusive Arguments<P>9. Canonicity<hr /><P>1. Structure of the Book:<P>Reading this book one soon becomes aware that it is a discussion of certain difficult problems of human life. It begins with a title Ec (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',1,1);">1:1</a>), followed by a preface (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',1,\'2-11\');">1:2-11</a>). It has a formal conclusion (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',12,\'8-13\');">12:8-13</a>). Between the preface and the conclusion the body of the book is made up of materials of two kinds<64>first a series of "I" sections, sections uttered in the 1st person singular, a record of a personal experience; and second, an alternating series of gnomic sections, sections made up of proverbs (say <a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',4,5,6,\'9-12\');">4:5,6,9-12</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',5,\'1-12\');">5:1-12</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',7,\'1-14\',\'16-22\');">7:1-14,16-22</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',8,\'1-8\');">8:1-8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',9,\'7-10\');">9:7-10</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',10,\'1-4\');">10:1-4</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',10,\'8-\');">10:8-12:7</a>). These may be called the "thou" sections, as most of them have the pronoun of the 2nd person singular. The idea of the vanity of all things characterizes the record of experience, but it also appears in the "thou" sections (eg. <a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',9,9);">9:9</a>). On the other hand the proverb element is not wholly lacking in the "I" sections (eg. <a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',4,1,2,3);">4:1-3</a>).<P>2. The Contents:<P>In the preface the speaker lays down the proposition that all things are unreal, and that the results of human effort are illusive (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',1,2,3);">1:2,3</a>). Human generations, day and night, the wind, the streams, are alike the repetition of an unending round (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',1,\'4-7\');">1:4-7</a>). The same holds in regard to all human study and thinking (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',1,\'8-11\');">1:8-11</a>). The speaker shows familiarity with the phenomena which we think of as those of natural law, of the persistence of force, but he thinks of them in the main as monotonously limiting human experience. Nothing is new. All effort of Nature or of man is the doing again of something which has already been done.<P>After the preface the speaker introduces himself, and recounts his experiences. At the outset he had a noble ambition for wisdom and discipline, but all he attained to was unreality and perplexity of mind (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',1,\'12-18\');">Ec 1:12-18</a>). This is equally the meaning of the text, whether we translate "vanity and vexation of spirit" or "vanity and a striving after wind," ("emptiness, and struggling for breath"), though the first of these two translations is the better grounded.<P>Finding no adequate satisfaction in the pursuits of the scholar and thinker, taken by themselves, he seeks to combine these with the pursuit of agreeable sensations<6E>alike those which come from luxury and those which come from activity and enterprise and achievement Ec (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',2,\'1-12\');">2:1-12</a>). No one could be in better shape than he for making this experiment, but again he only attains to unreality and perplexity of spirit. He says to himself that at least it is in itself profitable to be a wise man rather than a fool, but his comfort is impaired by the fact that both alike are mortal (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',2,\'13-17\');">2:13-17</a>). He finds little reassurance in the idea of laboring for the benefit of posterity; posterity is often not worthy (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',2,\'18-21\');">2:18-21</a>). One may toil unremittingly, but what is the use (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',2,22,23);">2:22,23</a>)?<P>He does not find himself helped by bringing God into the problem. \'It is no good for a man that he should eat and drink and make his soul see good in his toil\' Ec (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',2,\'24-26\');">2:24-26</a>, as most naturally translated), even if he thinks of it as the gift of God; for how can one be sure that the gift of God is anything but luck? He sees, however, that it is not just to dismiss thus lightly the idea of God as a factor in the problem. It is true that there is a time for everything, and that everything is "beautiful in its time." It is also true that ideas of infinity are in men\'s minds, ideas which they can neither get rid of nor fully comprehend (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',3,\'1-18\');">3:1-18</a>). Here are tokens of God, who has established an infinite order. If we understood His ways better, that might unravel our perplexities. And if God is, immortality may be, and the solution of our problems may lie in that direction. For a moment it looks as if the speaker were coming out into the light, but doubt resumes its hold upon him. He asks himself, "Who knoweth?" and he settles back into the darkness. He has previously decided that for a man to "eat and drink, and make his soul enjoy good" is not worth while; and now he reaches the conclusion that, unsatisfactory as this is, there is nothing better (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',3,\'19-22\');">3:19-22</a>).<P>And so the record of experiences continues, hopeful passages alternating with pessimistic passages. After a while the agnosticism and pessimism recede somewhat, and the hopeful passages become more positive. Even though "the poor man\'s wisdom is despised," the speaker says, "the words of the wise heard in quiet are better than the cry of him that ruleth among fools" Ec (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',9,17);">9:17</a>). He says "Surely I know that it shall be well with them that fear God" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',8,12);">8:12</a>), no matter how strongly appearances may indicate the contrary.<P>The gnomic sections are mostly free from agnosticism and pessimism. The book as a whole sums itself up in the conclusion, "Fear God, and keep his commandments" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',12,13);">Ec 12:13</a>).<P>Of course the agnostic and pessimistic utterances in Ecc are to be regarded as the presentation of one side of an argument. Disconnect them and they are no part of the moral and religious teaching of the book, except in an indirect way. At no point should we be justified in thinking of the author as really doubting in regard to God or moral obligation. He delineates for us a soul in the toils of mental and spiritual conflict. It is a delineation which may serve for warning, and which is in other ways wholesomely instructive; and in the outcome of it, it is full of encouragement.<P>In some passages the speaker in Ecclesiastes has in mind the solution of the problems of life which we are accustomed to call Epicurean (eg. <a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',5,18,19,20);">5:18-20</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',7,16,17);">7:16-17</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',8,15);">8:15</a>; but not <a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',2,24);">2:24</a>)<29>the solution which consists in avoiding extremes, and in getting from life as many agreeable sensations as possible; but it is not correct to say that he advocates this philosophy. He rather presents it as an alternative.<P>His conclusion is the important part of his reasoning. All things are vanity. Everything passes away. Yet (he says) it is better to read and use good words than bad words. Therefore because the Great Teacher is wise, he ever teaches the people knowledge, and in so doing he ever seeks good words, acceptable words, upright words, words of truth. "The words of the wise are as goads; and as nails well fastened" ("clinched at the back") (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',12,11);">12:11</a>). Such are the words of all the great masters. So (he ends) my son, be warned! There are many books in this world. Choose good ones. And his conclusion is: Reverence the Mighty Spirit. Keep to good principles. That is the whole duty of man. For everything at last becomes clear; and "good" stands out clearly from "evil."<P>3. Composite Authorship?:<P>We have noticed that our book has "I" sections and "thou" sections. Certainly these are structural marks, but as such they are capable of being interpreted in various ways. Partitional hypotheses can easily be formed, and perhaps there is no great objection to them; but there are no phenomena which cannot be accounted for by the hypothesis that we have here just the work of one author, who sometimes quotes proverbial utterances, either his own or those of other men. As proving the integrity of the book three points present themselves. First, in some cases (eg. <a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',7,14,15,16);">Ec 7:14b-16</a>) the experience matter and the gnomic matter are closely combined in sense and in grammatical construction. Second, it is possible to interpret all the gnomic sections as a part of the continuous argument. Third, if we so interpret them the book is a unit, the argument moving forward continuously out of the speculative into the practical, and out of the darkness into the light.<P>4. Qoheleth:<P>The speaker in Ecclesiastes calls himself Qoheleth (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',1,1,2,12);">1:1,2,12</a> and other places), rendered "the Preacher" in the English Versions. The word does not occur elsewhere, although it is from a stem that is in common use. Apparently it has been coined for a purpose by the author of Ecclesiastes. In form it is a feminine participle, though it denotes a man. This is best explained as a case of the using of an abstract expression for a concrete, as when in English we say "Your Honor," "Your Majesty." The other words of the stem are used of people gathering in assemblies, and the current explanation is to the effect that Qoheleth is a person who draws an audience whom he may address. To this there are two objections: First, the participle is intransitive; its natural implication is that of a person who participates in an assembly, not of one who causes the participants to assemble. Second, the assembly distinctively indicated by the words of this stem is the official assembly for the transaction of public business. Worked out on this basis Qoheleth seems to mean citizenship, or concretely, a citizen<65>a citizen of such respectability that he is entitled to participate in public assemblies. It is in the character of citizen-king that the speaker in Ecclesiastes relates his experiences and presents his ideas.<P>This word for "assembly" and its cognates are in the Greek often translated by ekklesia and its cognates (eg. <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',4,10);">De 4:10</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',9,10);">9:10</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',20,2);">Jud 20:2</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',21,5,8);">21:5, 8</a>). So we are not surprised to find Qoheleth rendered by the Greek Ekklesiastes, and this Latinized into Ecclesiastes.<P>5. "King in Jerusalem":<P>The speaker in Ecc speaks not only in the character of Qoheleth, but in that of "the son of David, king in Jerus" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',1,1);">1:1</a>). So far as this clause is concerned the king in question might be either Solomon or any other king of the dynasty, or might be a composite or an ideal king. He is represented (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',1,\'12-\');">1:12</a> - <a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',2,\'1-11\');">2:11</a>) as "king over Israel," and as distinguished for wisdom, for his luxuries, for his great enterprises in building and in business. These marks fit Solomon better than any other king of the dynasty, unless possibly Uzziah. Possibly it is not absurd to apply to Solomon even the phrase "all that were before me over Jerusalem," or "in Jerus" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',1,16);">1:16</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',2,7,9);">2:7,9</a>; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',29,25);">1Ch 29:25</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',3,12);">1Ki 3:12</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',1,12);">2Ch 1:12</a>). It is safer, however, to use an alternative statement. The speaker in Ecc is either Solomon or some other actual or composite or ideal king of the dynasty of David.<P>6. Date and Authorship:<P>If it were agreed that Solomon is the citizen king who, in Ecclesiastes, is represented as speaking, that would not be the same thing as agreeing that Solomon is the author of the book. No one thinks that Sir Galahad is the author of Tennyson\'s poem of that name. Qoheleth the king is the character into whose mouth the author of Ecclesiastes puts the utterances which he wishes to present, but it does not follow that the author is himself Qoheleth.<P>The statement is often made that Jewish tradition attributes the writing of Ecclesiastes to Solomon; but can anyone cite any relatively early tradition to this effect? Is this alleged tradition anything else than the confusing of the author with the character whom he has sketched? The well-known classic tradition in Babha\' Bathra\' attributes Ecc to "Hezekiah and his company," not to Solomon. And the tradition which is represented by the order in which the books occur in the Hebrew Bibles seems to place it still later. Concerning this tradition two facts are to be noted: First, it classes Ecclesiastes with the 5 miscellaneous books (Canticles, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther) known as the five meghilloth, the five Rolls. Second, in the count of books which makes the <span class="noTag">number 22</span> or 24 it classes Ecclesiastes as one of the last 5 books (Ecclesiastes, Esther, Dan, Ezra-Nehemiah, 1 and 2 Chronicles). That the men who made this arrangement regarded the books of this group as the latest in the Bible is a natural inference.<P>7. Linguistic Peculiarities:<P>This agrees with the internal marks which constitute the principal evidence we have on this point. The grammatical character and the vocabulary of Ecclesiastes are exceptionally peculiar, and they strongly indicate that the book was written in the same literary period with these other latest books of the Old Testament. The true date is not much earlier or later than 400 BC (see <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=CHRONICLES">CHRONICLES</a>), though many place it a century or a century and a half later. Details concerning these phenomena may be found in Driver\'s Introduction or other Introductions, or in commentaries. Only a few of the points will be given here, with barely enough illustrative instances to render the points intelligible.<P>In Ecclesiastes the syntax of the verb is peculiar. The imperfect with waw consecutive, the ordinary Hebrew narrative tense, occurs<72>for example, "And I applied my heart" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',1,17);">1:17</a>)<29>but it is rare. The narrator habitually uses the perfect with waw (eg. <a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',1,13);">1:13</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',2,11,12,14,15,17);">2:11,12,14,15 bis. 17</a>). In any English book we should find it very noticeable if the author were in the habit of using the progressive form of the verb instead of the ordinary form<72>if instead of saying "And I applied my heart" he should say "And I was applying my heart," "And I was looking on all the works," "And I was turning" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',1,13);">1:13</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',2,11,12);">2:11-12</a>), and so on. Another marked peculiarity is the frequent repeating of the pronoun along with the verb: \'I said in my heart, even I\'; \'And I was hating, even I, all my labor\' (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',2,118);">2:1,18</a> and continually). The use of the pronoun as copula is abnormally common in Ecclesiastes as compared with other parts of the Hebrew Bible (eg. <a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',4,2);">4:2</a>). The abbreviated form of the relative pronoun is much used instead of the full form, and in both forms the pronoun is used disproportionately often as a conjunction. In these and many similar phenomena the Hebrew language of Ecclesiastes is affiliated with that of the later times.<P>The vocabulary presents phenomena that have the same bearing. Words of the stem taqan appear in Ecclesiastes (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',1,15);">1:15</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',7,13);">7:13</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',12,9);">12:9</a>) and in the Aramaic of Daniel (<a onClick="return mV(\'Dan\',4,36);">4:36</a>), and not elsewhere in the Bible; they are frequent in the Talmud Words of the stem zaman (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',3,1);">3:1</a>) are used only in Ecclesiastes, Ezra, Nehemiah, Daniel, Esther. Words of the stem shalaT, the stem whence comes our word "sultan," are frequent in Ecclesiastes<65>words which are used elsewhere only in the avowedly post-exilian books and in <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',42,6);">Ge 42:6</a>, though a different word of this stem appears in the history of the time of David. Only in Ecclesiastes and Esther are found the verb kasher, "to be correct" (whence the modern Jewish kosher) and its derivative kishron. The Persian word pardec, "park" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',2,5);">Ec 2:5</a>), occurs elsewhere only in Nehemiah and Canticles, and the Persian word pithgam, "official decision" or "record" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',8,11);">Ec 8:11</a>), only in <a onClick="return mV(\'Est\',1,20);">Es 1:20</a>, and in the Aramaic parts of Ezra and Daniel. Ecclesiastes also abounds in late words formed from earlier stems<6D>for example, cekhel and cikheluth, "folly" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',10,6);">Ec 10:6</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',2,3);">2:3</a> et al.); or medhinah, "province" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',5,8);">Ec 5:8</a>), frequent in the latest books, but elsewhere found only in one passage in 1Ki (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',20,14,15,17,19);">20:14,15,17,19</a>). Especially common are new derivatives that end in "-n," for example, yithron, "profit"; \'inyan, "travail"; checron, "that which is missing"; ra\'yon, "vexation" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',1,3,13,15,17);">Ec 1:3, 13, 15, 17</a> and often). To these add instances of old words used in new meanings, and the various other groups of phenomena that are usual in such cases. No parts of the book are free from them.<P>The arguments for a later date than that which has been assigned are inconclusive. The Hebrew language of Ecclesiastes is more like the language of the Talmuds than is that of the Chronicler or Daniel or even Esther; but if one infers that Ecclesiastes is therefore later than the others the inference will prove to be in various ways embarrassing. The differences are better accounted for by the fact that Ecclesiastes belongs to a different type of literature from the others.<P>8. Certain Inconclusive Arguments:<P>Various passages have local color in Ec (eg. <a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',11,1);">11:1</a>), or make the impression of being allusions to specific events (eg. <a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',14,\'13-16\');">4:13-16</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',6,2,3);">6:2-3</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',9,\'13-18\');">9:13-18</a>), but the difficulty lies in locating the events. Dr. Kleinert argues plausibly for the writing of the book in Egypt in the time of the Ptolemies, but other equally probable hypotheses might be devised.<P>It is alleged that Ecclesiastes copies from Ecclesiasticus, but it is more probable that the latter copied from the former. It is alleged that the Wisdom disputes Ecclesiastes; if it does, that does not prove that the two are contemporary. It is alleged that the writer is familiar with the philosophy of Epicurus, and therefore must have lived later than Epicurus, who died 270 BC, or even later than Lucretius of the 1st century BC. If there were proof that this was a case of borrowing, Epicurus or Lucretius might have been the borrowers; but there is no such proof; the selfishness which constitutes the nucleus of Epicureanism has exhibited itself in human literature from the beginning. The strong resemblances between Ecclesiastes and Omar Khayyam have no weight to prove that the Hebrew author was later than the Persian Ecclesiastes presents a perfectly distinct doctrine of immortality, whether it affirms the doctrine or not; but that proves a relatively early date for the doctrine, rather than a late date for Ecclesiastes. At every point the marks of Ecclesiastes are those of the Persian period, not of the Greek.<P>9. Canonicity:<P>In the early Christian centuries, as in all the centuries since, there have been disputes concerning the canonicity of Ecclesiastes. It was not questioned that Ecclesiastes belonged to the canon as traditionally handed down. No question of admitting it to the canon was raised. But it was challenged because of the agnostic quality of some of its contents, and, every time, on close examination, the challenge was decided in its favor.<P>LITERATURE.<P>There are volumes on Ecclesiastes in all the great commentaries, and treatments of it in the volumes on Introduction. A few of the many separate commentaries are those of Moses Stuart, Andover, 1864; H. Gratz, Leipzig, 1871; G. Wildeboer, Tubingen, 1898; E. H. Plumptre, Cambridge, 1881. Other works are those of J. F. Genung, Ecclesiastes, and Omar Khayyam,1901,Words of Koheleth,1904,and The Hebrew Literature of Wisdom in the Light of Today, 1906; C. H. H. Wright, Book of Koheleth, 1883; S. Schiffer, Das Buch Coheleth nach Talmud und Midrasch, 1885; A. H. McNeile. Introduction to Ecclesiastes, New York, 1904.``11';
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isbe[2879]='Ecclesiasticus`e-kle-zi-as\'-ti-kus.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=SIRACH">SIRACH</a>`1';
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isbe[2880]='Eclipse`e-klips\'.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ASTRONOMY">ASTRONOMY</a>`1';
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isbe[2881]='Ed`(\'edh, "witness"):<P>The name of the altar erected by the trans-Jordanic tribes upon finally taking possession of Gilead (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',22,10,11,34);">Jos 22:10-11, 34</a>); probably east of the Jordan opposite Jericho. But neither the Massoretic Text nor the Septuagint contained the word. Both the King James Version and the Revised Version (British and American), however, insert the word on the authority of a few manuscripts. It has been suggested that it is the final \'edh in Gal\'edh, the name given by Laban and Jacob to the memorial heap of stones erected by them in the vicinity (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',31,47,48);">Ge 31:47-48</a>). According to the Massoretic Text, the name of the altar is the entire sentence: "It is a witness between us that Yahweh is God." The opposition of the ten tribes to the erection of this altar was on the score that it was built after the pattern of the great altar of burnt offering (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',22,11,29);">Jos 22:11, 29</a>), which was a horned altar forbidden in ordinary lay sacrifice. There is in it, therefore, no indication of a general opposition to lay sacrifices on altars of earth or unhewn stone (see Wiener, EPC, 198).``198';
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isbe[2882]='Edar`e\'-dar.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=EDER">EDER</a>`1';
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isbe[2883]='Eddias`ed-i\'-as.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=IEDDIAS">IEDDIAS</a>`1';
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isbe[2884]='Eddinus`ed\'-i-nus (Eddeinous, Codex Alexandrinus, Eddinous):<P>One of the "holy singers" at Josiah\'s Passover (1Esdras 1:15). the King James Version reads here Jeduthun, the corresponding name in the parallel passage (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',35,15);">2Ch 35:15</a>).``1';
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isbe[2885]='Eden`e\'-d\'-n (\'edhen, "delight"; Edem):<P>(1) The land in which "Yahweh God planted a garden," where upon his creation "he put the man whom he had formed" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',2,8);">Ge 2:8</a>).<P>In the Assyrian inscriptions idinu (Accadian, edin) means "plain" and it is from this that the Biblical word is probably derived. Following are the references to Eden in the Bible, aside from those in <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',2,\'1-\');">Ge 2</a> and <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',3,\'1-\');">3</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',4,16);">Ge 4:16</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',51,3);">Isa 51:3</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',28,13);">Eze 28:13</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',31,9,16,18);">31:9, 16, 18</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',36,35);">36:35</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Joe\',2,3);">Joe 2:3</a>. The Garden of Eden is said to be "eastward, in Eden" Genesis (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',2,8);">2:8</a>); where the vegetation was luxurious (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',2,9);">2:9</a>) and the fig tree indigenous (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',3,7);">3:7</a>), and where it was watered by irrigation.<P>All kinds of animals, including cattle, beasts of the field and birds, were found there (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',2,19,20);">2:19-20</a>). Moreover, the climate was such that clothing was not needed for warmth. It is not surprising, therefore, that the plural of the word has the meaning "delights," and that Eden has been supposed to mean the land of delights, and that the word became a synonym for Paradise.<P>The location of Eden is in part to be determined from the description already given. It must be where there is a climate adapted to the production of fruit trees and of animals capable of domestication, and in general to the existence of man in his primitive condition. In particular, its location is supposed to be determined by the statements regarding the rivers coursing through it and surrounding it. There is a river (nahar) (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',2,10);">Ge 2:10</a>) which was parted and became four heads (ro\'shim), a word which (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',8,16);">Jud 8:16</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',1,17);">Job 1:17</a>) designates main detachments into which an army is divided, and therefore would more properly signify branches than heads, permitting Josephus and others to interpret the river as referring to the ocean, which by the Greeks was spoken of as the river (okeanos) surrounding the world. According to Josephus, the Ganges, the Tigris, the Euphrates and the Nile are the four rivers, being but branches of this one river. Moreover, it is contended by some, with much show of reason, that the word perath translated Euphrates is a more general term, signifying "the broad" or "deep" river, and so may here refer to some other stream than the Euphrates, possibly to a river in some other region whose name is perpetuated in the present Euphrates, as "the Thames" of New England perpetuates the memory of the Thames of Old England. In ancient times there was a river Phrath in Persia, and perhaps two. It is doubtful whether the phrase "eastward, in Eden" refers to the position with reference to the writer or simply with reference to Eden itself. So far as that phrase is concerned, therefore, speculation is left free to range over the whole earth, and this it has done.<P>1. Central Asia:<P>Columbus when passing the mouth of the Orinoco surmised that its waters came down from the Garden of Eden. It is fair to say, however, that he supposed himself to be upon the east coast of Asia. The traditions of its location somewhere in Central Asia are numerous and persistent. Naturalists have, with Quatrefages, pretty generally fixed upon the portion of Central Asia stretching east from the Pamir, often referred to as the roof of the world, and from which flow four great rivers<72>the Indus, the Tarim, the Sur Daria (Jaxartes), and the Ainu Daria (Oxus)<29>as the original cradle of mankind. This conclusion has been arrived at from the fact that at the present time the three fundamental types of the races of mankind are grouped about this region. The Negro races are, indeed, in general far removed from the location, but still fragments of them both pure and mixed are found in various localities both in the interior and on the seashore and adjacent islands where they would naturally radiate from this center, while the yellow and the white races here meet at the present time in close contact. In the words of Quatrefages, "No other region of the globe presents a similar union of extreme human types distributed round a common center" (The Human Species, 176).<P>Philology, also, points to this same conclusion. On the east are the monosyllabic languages, on the north the polysyllabic or agglutinative languages, and on the west and south the inflectional or Aryan languages, of which the Sanskrit is an example, being closely allied to nearly all the languages of Europe. Moreover, it is to this center that we trace the origin of nearly all our domesticated plants and animals. Naturally, therefore, the same high authority writes, "There we are inclined to say the first human beings appeared and multiplied till the populations overflowed as from a bowl and spread themselves in waves in every direction" (ibid., 177). With this conclusion, as already said, a large number of most eminent authorities agree. But it should be noted that if, as we believe, there was a universal destruction of antediluvian man, the center of dispersion had in view by these naturalists and archaeologists would be that from the time of Noah, and so would not refer to the Eden from which Adam and Eve were driven. The same may be said of Haeckel\'s theory that man originated in a submerged continent within the area of the Indian Ocean.<P>2. The North Pole:<P>Dr. William F. Warren has with prodigious learning attempted to show that the original Eden was at the North Pole, a theory which has too many considerations in its support to be cast aside unceremoniously, for it certainly is true that in preglacial times a warm climate surrounded the North Pole in all the lands which have been explored. In Northern Greenland and in Spitzbergen abundant remains of fossil plants show that during the middle of the Tertiary period the whole circumpolar region was characterized by a climate similar to that prevailing at the present time in Southern Europe, Japan, and the Southern United States (see Asa Gray\'s lectures on "Forest Geography and Archaeology" in the American Journal of Science, CXVI, 85-94, 183-96, and Wright, Ice Age in North America, 5th edition, chapter xvii). But as the latest discoveries have shown that there is no land within several hundred miles of the North Pole, Dr. Warren\'s theory, if maintained at all, will have to be modified so as to place Eden at a considerable distance from the actual pole. Furthermore, his theory would involve the existence of "Tertiary man," and thus extend his chronology to an incredible extent, even though with Professor Green (see <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ANTEDILUVIANS">ANTEDILUVIANS</a>) we are permitted to consider the genealogical table of <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',5,\'1-\');">Ge 5</a> as sufficiently elastic to accommodate itself to any facts which may be discovered.<P>3. Armenia:<P>Much also can be said in favor of identifying Eden with Armenia, for it is here that the Tigris and Euphrates have their origin, while two others, the Aras (Araxes) emptying into the Caspian Sea and the Choruk (thought by some to be the Phasis) emptying into the Black Sea, would represent the Gihon and the Pishon. Havilah would then be identified with Colchis, famous for its golden sands. But Cush is difficult to find in that region; while these four rivers could by no possibility be regarded as branches of one parent stream.<P>4. Babylonia:<P>Two theories locate Eden in the Euphrates valley. Of these the first would place it near the head of the Persian Gulf where the Tigris and Euphrates after their junction form the Shatt el-\'Arab which bifurcates into the eastern and the western arm before reaching the Gulf. Calvin considered the Pishon to be the eastern arm and the Gihon the western arm. Other more recent authorities modify theory by supposing that Gihon and Pishon are represented by the Karum and the Kerkhah rivers which come into the Shatt el-\'Arab from the east. The most plausible objection to this theory is that the Biblical account represents all these branches as down stream from the main river, whereas this theory supposes that two of them at least are up stream. This objection has been ingeniously met by calling attention to the fact that 2,000 years before Christ the Persian Gulf extended up as far as Eridu, 100 miles above the present mouth of the river, and that the Tigris and the Euphrates then entered the head of the Gulf through separate channels, the enormous amount of silt brought down by the streams having converted so much of the valley into dry land. In consequence of the tides which extend up to the head of the Gulf, the current of all these streams would be turned up stream periodically, and so account for the Biblical statement. In this case the river (nahar) would be represented by the Persian Gulf itself, which was indeed called by the Babylonians nar marratum, "the bitter river." This theory is further supported by the fact that according to the cuneiform inscriptions Eridu was reputed to have in its neighborhood a garden, "a holy place," in which there grew a sacred palm tree. This "tree of life" appears frequently upon the inscriptions with two guardian spirits standing on either side.<P>The other theory, advocated with great ability by Friedrich Delitzsch, places Eden just above the site of ancient Babylon, where the Tigris and Euphrates approach to within a short distance of one another and where the country is intersected by numerous irrigating streams which put off from the Euphrates and flow into the Tigris, whose level is here considerably lower than that of the Euphrates<65>the situation being somewhat such as it is at New Orleans where the Mississippi River puts off numerous streams which empty into Lake Pontchartrain. Delitzsch supposes the Shatt el-Nil, which flows eastward into the Tigris, to be the Gihon, and the Pallacopas, flowing on the west side of the Euphrates through a region producing gold, to be the Pishon. The chief difficulties attending this theory pertain to the identification of the Pishon with the Pallacopas, and the location of Havilah on its banks. There is difficulty, also, in all these theories in the identification of Cush (Ethiopia), later associated with the country from which the Nile emerges, thus giving countenance to the belief of Josephus and many others that that river represented the Gihon. If we are compelled to choose between these theories it would seem that the one which locates Eden near the head of the Persian Gulf combines the greater number of probabilities of every kind.<P>(2) A Levite of the time of Hezekiah (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',29,12);">2Ch 29:12</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',31,15);">31:15</a>).<P>LITERATURE.<P>Dawson Modern Science in Bible Lands; Friedrich Delitzsch, Wo lag das Paradies? (1881); Sayce, HCM, 95ff; Hommel, Anc. Hebrew Tradition, 314; William F. Warren, Paradise Found, 1885.``198';
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isbe[2886]='Eden, Children of``<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=CHILDREN+OF+EDEN">CHILDREN OF EDEN</a>`1';
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isbe[2887]='Eden, House of``<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=AVEN">AVEN</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=BETH-EDEN">BETH-EDEN</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=CHILDREN+OF+EDEN">CHILDREN OF EDEN</a>`1';
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isbe[2888]='Eder (1)`e\'-der (\'edher, "flock"):<P>(1) One of the "uttermost cities" of Judah in the Negeb ("south") near the border of Edom (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',15,21);">Jos 15:21</a>), possibly Kh. el \'Adar, 5 miles south of Gaza, but probably this is too far west.<P>(2) Eder (the King James Version Edar) or better Migdal Eder, mighdal \'edher, "the tower of the flock"; Gader. After Rachel died and was buried "in the way to Ephrath (the same is Bethlehem)...Israel journeyed, and spread his tent beyond the tower of Eder" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',35,19,21);">Ge 35:19, 21</a>). In <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',35,27);">Ge 35:27</a> he is described as proceeding to Hebron. This "tower of the flock," which may have been only a tower and no town, must therefore be looked for between Bethlehem and Hebron. Jerome says that it was one Roman mile from Bethlehem. In the Septuagint, however, <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',35,16);">35:16</a> and <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',35,21);">21</a> are transposed, which suggests that there may have been a tradition that Migdal Eder was between Bethel and Bethlehem. There must have been many such towers for guarding flocks against robbers. Compare "tower of the watchman" (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',18,8);">2Ki 18:8</a>, etc.). The phrase "Migdal Eder" occurs in <a onClick="return mV(\'Mic\',4,8);">Mic 4:8</a> where Jerusalem is compared to such a tower.``117';
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isbe[2889]='Eder (2)`e\'-der (\'edher, "flock").<P>(1) A Merarite Levite in the days of David (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',23,23);">1Ch 23:23</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',24,30);">24:30</a>); son of Mushi.<P>(2) A Benjamite (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',8,15);">1Ch 8:15</a>, the King James Version "Ader").``1';
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isbe[2890]='Edes`e\'-dez: the Revised Version (British and American)<P><a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=EDOS">EDOS</a> (which see).``1';
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isbe[2891]='Edge`ej:<P>Very frequently occurs in the phrase "the edge of the sword" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',10,28);">Jos 10:28</a>, et al.) from the Hebrew peh, "lip," or saphah, "lip." <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',28,7);">Ex 28:7</a> and <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',39,4);">39:4</a> read "ends," from qatsah, "end" (the King James Version "edge"), and <a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',13,27);">Jos 13:27</a> has "uttermost part" for the same Hebrew word (the King James Version "edge"). In <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',31,29);">Jer 31:29</a> and <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',18,2);">Eze 18:2</a>, "The children\'s teeth are set on edge" (qahah, "to be blunt"), i.e. set hard one against another.``1';
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isbe[2892]='Edification; Edify`ed-i-fi-ka\'-shun, ed\'-i-fi:<P>The Greek words oikodomeo, "to build," oikodome, "the act of building," are used both literally and figuratively in the New Testament; "edify," "edifying," "edification," are the translation of the King James Version in some 20 passages, all in the figurative sense of the promotion of growth in Christian character. the Revised Version (British and American) in <a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',10,8);">2Co 10:8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',13,10);">13:10</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eph\',4,12,16);">Eph 4:12, 16</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Th\',5,11);">1Th 5:11</a> renders "build up," "building up," making the force of the figure clearer to the English reader. In <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ti\',1,4);">1Ti 1:4</a> the Greek text followed by the Revised Version (British and American) has oikonomia, "dispensation," instead of oikodomia, "edifying" (the King James Version).``57';
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isbe[2893]='Edna`ed\'-na (Edna):<P>Wife of Raguel and mother of Sarah who married Tobias (Tobit 7:2, etc.; 10:12; 11:1). "Edna" in Hebrew means "pleasure" and corresponds to Latin Anna.``1';
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isbe[2894]='Edom; Edomites`e\'-dum, e\'-dum-its \'edhom, "red"; Edom:<P>1. Boundaries:<P>The boundaries of Edom may be traced with some approach to accuracy. On the east of the \'Arabah the northern border ran from the Dead Sea, and was marked by Wady el-Kurachi, or Wady el-Chasa. On the east it marched with the desert. The southern border ran by Elath and Ezion-geber (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',2,8);">De 2:8</a>). On the west of the \'Arabah the north boundary of Edom is determined by the south border of Israel, as indicated in <a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',34,3);">Nu 34:3</a> f: a line running from the Salt Sea southward of the Ascent of Akrabbim to Zin and Kadesh-barnea. This last, we are told, lay in the "uttermost" of the border of Edom (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',20,16);">Nu 20:16</a>). The line may be generally indicated by the course of Wady el-Fiqrah. How much of the uplands west of the \'Arabah southward to the Gulf of \'Aqaba was included in Edom it is impossible to say.<P>2. Character and Features:<P>The land thus indicated varies greatly in character and features. South of the Dead Sea in the bottom of the valley we have first the stretch of salt marsh land called es-Sebkha; then, beyond the line of white cliffs that crosses the valley diagonally from northwest to southeast, a broad depression strewn with stones and sandhills, the debris of an old sea bottom, rises gradually, and 60 miles to the south reaches a height of about 700 ft. above the level of the Red Sea, 2,000 ft. above that of the Dead Sea. From this point it sinks until it reaches the shore of the Gulf of \'Aqaba, 45 miles farther south. The whole depression is known today as Wady el-\'Arabah (compare Hebrew ha-\'arabhah, <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',2,8);">De 2:8</a> the Revised Version (British and American), etc.). On either side the mountains rise steeply from the valley, their edges carved into many fantastic shapes by the deep wadys that break down from the interior (see <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ARABAH">ARABAH</a>). The northern part of the plateau on the west forms the spacious grazing ground of the \'Azdzimeh Arabs. The mountains rise to a height of from about 1,500 ft. to a little over 2,000 ft. This district was traversed by the ancient caravan road to south Palestine; and along the eastern side traces of the former civilization are still to be seen. The desert region to the south is higher, reaching to as much as 2,600 ft. The mountain range east of the \'Arabah is generally higher in the south than in the north. Jebel Harun beside Petra, is 4,780 ft. above sea-level; while east of \'Aqaba, Jebel el-Chisma may be as much as 5,900 ft. in height.<P>Limestone, porphyry and Nubian sandstone are the prevailing formation; but volcanic rocks are also found. The range consists mainly of rough rocky heights with many almost inaccessible peaks separated by deep gorges. But there are also breadths of fertile land where wheat, grapes, figs, pomegranates and olives are grown to advantage. The northern district is known today by the name el-Jebal, corresponding to the ancient Gebal. Seir is the name applied to the eastern range in <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',36,8);">Ge 36:8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',2,1,5);">De 2:1, 5</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',20,23);">2Ch 20:23</a>. It is also called Edom, and the Mount of Esau (<a onClick="return mV(\'Oba\',1,8);">Ob 1:8</a>f). Seir, however, is used for the western highlands in <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',33,2);">De 33:2</a>. This seems to be its meaning also in <a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',5,4);">Jud 5:4</a>, where it appears as the equivalent of "the field of Edom." With this same phrase, however, in <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',32,3);">Ge 32:3</a> it may more fitly apply to the eastern range.<P>See illustration under <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=DESERT">DESERT</a>.<P>3. Origin of Name:<P>The name Edom, "red," may have been derived from the red sandstone cliffs characteristic of the country. It was applied to Esau because of the color of his skin (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',25,25);">Ge 25:25</a>), or from the color of the pottage for which he sold his birthright (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',25,30);">Ge 25:30</a>). In <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',36,8);">Ge 36:8</a> Esau is equated with Edom as dwelling in Mt. Seir; and he is described as the father of Edom (36:9, Hebrew). The name however is probably much older. It may be traced in the records of the Twelfth Dynasty in Egypt. In the Tell el-Amarna Letters (Brit Mus No. 64) Udumu, or Edom, is named; and in Assyrian inscriptions the name Udumu occurs of a city and of a country. The latter may have been named from the former: this again may have been derived from a deity, Edom, who may be traced in such a name as Obed-edom (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',6,10);">2Sa 6:10</a>).<P>4. History:<P>The children of Esau are said to have "destroyed" the Horites who dwelt in Seir before them (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',14,6);">Ge 14:6</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',2,22);">De 2:22</a>). This only means that the Horites were subdued. Esau married the daughter of Anah, a Horite (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',36,20);">Ge 36:20</a><3E>in verse <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',36,2);">2</a> he is called a Hivite); and the lists in this chapter show that the races intermingled. The Horite government was in the hands of "dukes" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',36,29);">Ge 36:29</a>f; the Revised Version (British and American) "chiefs"). They were succeeded by dukes of the house of Esau (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',36,40);">Ge 36:40</a>ff). This form of government gave way to that of an elective monarchy (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',36,31);">Ge 36:31</a>ff); and this had existed some time before Israel left the wilderness. The then reigning king would not permit Israel to pass through the land (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',20,14);">Nu 20:14</a>ff; <a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',21,4);">21:4</a>). Israel was forbidden to "abhor an Edomite," on the ground that he was a brother; and children of the third generation might enter the assembly of the Lord (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',23,7);">De 23:7</a>f). War with Edom was out of the question.<P>Some thirty years after the Exodus, Ramses III "smote the people of Seir." The Israelites could not have been far off. We first hear of war between Israel and Edom under Saul (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',14,47);">1Sa 14:47</a>). David prosecuted the war with terrific energy, slaying 18,000 Edomites (so read instead of "Syrians") in the Valley of Salt (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',8,13);">2Sa 8:13</a>f); Joab remaining for six months in the country, which was garrisoned by Israelites, "until he had cut off every male in Edom" (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',11,15);">1Ki 11:15</a>f). Hadad of the blood royal of Edom escaped to Egypt, and later became a source of trouble to Solomon (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',11,14);">1Ki 11:14</a>ff, <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',11,25);">25</a>). The conquest of Edom opened to Israel the ports of the Red Sea, whence the expeditions of Solomon and Jehoshaphat set out. In Jehoshaphat\'s time the king is called a "deputy" (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',22,47);">1Ki 22:47</a>). Its king acknowledged the supremacy of Judah (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',3,9);">2Ki 3:9</a>, etc.). Under Jehoram son of Jehoshaphat, Edom revolted. Jehoram defeated them at Zair, but was unable to quell the rebellion (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',8,20);">2Ki 8:20</a>ff). Amaziah invaded the country, slew 10,000 in the Valley of Salt, and took Sela which he named Joktheel (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',14,7);">2Ki 14:7</a>). Uzziah restored the Edomite port of Elath (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',14,22);">2Ki 14:22</a>). In the Syrian war Rezin regained Elath for Syria, and cast out the Jews. It was then permanently occupied by Syrians<6E>here also probably we should read Edomites (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',16,6);">2Ki 16:6</a>). From the cuneiform inscriptions we learn that when Tiglath-pileser subdued Rezin, among the kings from whom he received homage at Damascus was Qaus-malaka of Edom (736 BC). Later Malik-ram paid homage to Sennacherib. To Ezarhaddon also they were compelled to render service. They gave what help they could to Nebuchadnezzar, and exulted in the destruction of Jerusalem, stirring the bitterest indignation in the hearts of the Jews (<a onClick="return mV(\'Lam\',4,21);">La 4:21</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',25,12);">Eze 25:12</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',35,3);">35:3</a>ff; <a onClick="return mV(\'Oba\',1,10);">Ob 1:10</a>ff). The Edomites pressed into the now empty lands in the south of Judah. In 300 BC Mt. Seir with its capital Petra fell into the hands of the Nabateans.<P>5. Idumaea and the Idumeans:<P>West of the \'Arabah the country they occupied came to be known by the Greek name Idumaea, and the people as Idumeans. Hebron, their chief city, was taken by Judas Maccabeus in 165 BC (1Macc 4:29,61; 5:65). In 126 BC the country was subdued by John Hyrcanus, who compelled the people to become Jews and to submit to circumcision. Antipater, governor of Idumaea, was made procurator of Judea, Samaria and Galilee by Julius Caesar. He paved the way to the throne for his son Herod the Great. With the fall of Judah under the Romans, Idumaea disappears from history.<P>The names of several Edomite deities are known: Hadad, Qaus, Koze, and, possibly, Edom; but of the religion of Edom we are without information. The language differed little from Hebrew.``54';
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isbe[2895]='Edos`e\'-dos (Edais; the King James Version Edes):<P>One who agreed to put away his foreign wife (1Esdras 9:35); called Iddo, the King James Version "Jadan," in <a onClick="return mV(\'Ezr\',10,43);">Ezr 10:43</a>.``1';
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isbe[2896]='Edrei`ed\'-re-i (\'edhre\'i; Edra-ein):<P>(1) One of the cities of Og, not far from Ashtaroth, where the power of his kingdom received its deathblow from the invading Israelites (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',12,4);">Jos 12:4</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',21,33);">Nu 21:33</a>ff, etc.). It seems to mark the western limit of Bashan as against Salecah on the east (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',3,10);">De 3:10</a>). It was given to Machir, son of Manasseh (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',13,31);">Jos 13:31</a>). Eusebius, Onomasticon places it 24 Roman miles from Bostra. The most probable identification is with Der\'ah, a town of between 4,000 and 5,000 inhabitants, on the southern lip of Wady Zeideh, about 29 miles as the crow flies east of the Sea of Galilee. It is the center of an exceedingly fruitful district. The accumulated rubbish in the town covers many remains of antiquity. It is, however, chiefly remarkable for the extraordinary subterranean city, as yet only partially explored, cut in the rock under the town. This is certainly very ancient, and was doubtless used by the inhabitants as a refuge in times of stress and peril. For a description see Schumacher, Across the Jordan, 121ff.<P>(2) A place not identified, between Kedesh and En-hazor (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',19,37);">Jos 19:37</a>).``54';
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isbe[2897]='Education`ed-u-ka\'-shun:<P>Contents<P><b>I. EDUCATION DEFINED</b><P><b>II. EDUCATION IN EARLY ISRAEL</b><P class="in15">1. Nomadic and Agricultural Periods<P class="in15">2. The Monarchical Period<P class="in15">3. Deuteronomic Legislation<P class="in15">4. Reading and Writing<P><b>III. EDUCATION IN LATER ISRAEL</b><P class="in15">1. Educational Significance of the Prophets<P class="in15">2. The Book of the Law<P class="in15">3. Wise Men or Sages<P class="in15">4. The Book of Proverbs<P class="in15">5. Scribes and Levites<P class="in15">6. Greek and Roman Influences<P><b>IV. EDUCATION IN NEW TESTAMENT TIMES</b><P class="in15">1. Subject Matter of Instruction<P class="in15">2. Method and Aims<P class="in15">3. Valuable Results of Jewish Education<P class="in15">4. The Preeminence of Jesus as a Teacher<P class="in15">5. Educational Work of the Early Disciples<P><b>V. LITERATURE</b><hr /><P>I. Education Defined.<P>By education we understand the sum total of those processes whereby society transmits from one generation to the next its accumulated social, intellectual and religious experience and heritage. In part these processes are informal and incidental, arising from participation in certain forms of social life and activity which exist on their own account and not for the sake of their educative influence upon the rising generation. The more formal educative processes are designed<P>(1) to give the immature members of society a mastery over the symbols and technique of civilization, including language (reading and writing), the arts, the sciences, and religion, and<P>(2) to enlarge the fund of individual and community knowledge beyond the measure furnished by the direct activities of the immediate environment (compare Dewey, article on "Education" in Monroe\'s CE; compare Butler, ME).<P>Religious education among ancient and modern peoples alike reveals clearly this twofold aspect of all education. On its informal side it consists in the transmission of religious ideas and experience by means of the reciprocal processes of imitation and example; each generation, by actually participating in the religious activities and ceremonies of the social group, imbibing as it were the spirit and ideals of the preceding generation as these are modified by the particular economic and industrial conditions under which the entire process takes place. Formal religious education begins with the conscious and systematic effort on the part of the mature members of a social group (tribe, nation, or religious fellowship) to initiate the immature members by means of solemn rites and ceremonies, or patient training, or both, into the mysteries and high privileges of their own religious fellowship and experience. As regards both the content and form of this instruction, these will in every case be determined by the type and stage of civilization reflected in the life, occupations, habits and customs of the people. Among primitive races educational method is simpler and the content of formal instruction less differentiated than on higher culture levels (Ames, PRE). All education is at first religious in the sense that religious motives and ideas predominate in the educational efforts of all primitive peoples. The degree to which religion continues preeminent in the educational system of a progressive nation depends upon the vitality of its religion and upon the measure of efficiency and success with which from the first that religion is instilled into the very bone and sinew of each succeeding generation. Here lies the explanation of the religious-educational character of Hebrew national life, and here, too, the secret of Israel\'s incomparable influence upon the religious and educational development of the world. The religion of Israel was a vital religion and it was a teaching religion (Kent, GTJC).<P>II. Education in Early Israel.<P>In their social and national development the Hebrews passed through several clearly marked cultural stages which it is important to note in connection with their educational history. At the earliest point at which the Old Testament gives us any knowledge of them, they, like their ancestors, were nomads and shepherds. Their chief interest centered in the flocks and herds from which they gained a livelihood, and in the simple, useful arts that seem gradually to have become hereditary in certain families. With the settlement of the Hebrew tribes in Palestine and their closer contact with Canaanitish culture, a more established agricultural life with resulting changes in social and religious institutions gradually superseded the nomadic stage of culture. A permanent dwelling-place made possible, as the continual warfare of gradual conquest made necessary, a closer federation of the tribes, which ultimately resulted in the establishment of the monarchy under David (W. R. Smith, RS; Davidson, HE).<P>1. Nomadic and Agricultural Periods:<P>In these earliest cultural periods, both the nomadic and the agricultural, there was no distinct separation between the spheres of religion and ordinary life. The relation of the people to Yahweh was conceived by them in simple fashion as involving on their part the obligation of filial obedience and loyalty, and on Yahweh\'s part reciprocal parental care over them as His people. The family was the social unit and its head the person in whom centered also religious authority and leadership, The tribal head or patriarch in turn combined in himself the functions which later were differentiated into those of priest and prophet and king. Education was a matter of purely domestic interest and concern. The home was the only school and the parents the only teachers. But there was real instruction, all of which, moreover, was given in a spirit of devout religious earnestness and of reverence for the common religious ceremonies and beliefs, no matter whether the subject of instruction was the simple task of husbandry or of some useful art, or whether it was the sacred history and traditions of the tribe, or the actual performance of its religious rites. According to Josephus (Ant., IV, viii, 12) Moses himself had commanded, "All boys shall learn the most important parts of the law since such knowledge is most valuable and the source of happiness"; and again he commanded (Apion, II, 25) to teach them the rudiments of learning (reading and writing) together with the laws and deeds of the ancestors, in order that they might not transgress or seem ignorant of the laws of their ancestors, but rather emulate their example. Certain it is that the earliest legislation, including the Decalogue, emphasized parental authority and their claim on the reverence of their children: "Honor thy father and thy mother, that thy days may be long in the land which Yahweh thy God giveth thee" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',20,12);">Ex 20:12</a>); "And he that smiteth his father, or his mother, shall be surely put to death. And he that curseth his father or his mother, shall surely be put to death" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',21,15,17);">Ex 21:15, 17</a>); while every father was exhorted to explain to his son the origin and significance of the great Passover ceremony with its feast of unleavened bread: "And thou shalt tell thy son in that day, saying, It is because of that which Yahweh did for me when I came forth out of Egypt" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',13,8);">Ex 13:8</a>).<P>2. The Monarchical Period:<P>The period of conquest and settlement developed leaders who not only led the allied tribes in battle, but served as judges between their people, and were active in the maintenance of the ancestral religion. In time, sufficient cooperation was obtained to make possible the organization of strong intertribal leagues and, finally, the kingship. "This increasing political unification," says Ames, "was accompanied by a religious consciousness which became ultimately the most remarkable product of the national development" (Ames, PRE, 174f). The establishment of the kingdom and the beginnings of city and commercial life were accompanied by more radical cultural changes, including the differentiation of religious from other social institutions, the organization of the priesthood, and the rise and development of prophecy. Elijah, the Tishbite, Amos, the herdsman from Tekoa, Isaiah, the son of Amoz, were all champions of a simple faith and ancient religious ideals as over against the worldly-wise diplomacy and sensuous idolatry of the surrounding nations. Under the monarchy also a new religious symbolism developed. Yahweh was thought of as a king in whose hands actually lay the supreme guidance of the state: "Accordingly the organization of the state included provision for consulting His will and obtaining His direction in all weighty matters" (W. R. Smith, RS, 30). Under the teaching of the prophets the ideal of personal and civic righteousness was moved to the very forefront of Hebrew religious thought, while the prophetic ideal of the future was that of a time when "the earth shall be full of the knowledge of Yahweh, as the waters cover the sea" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',11,9);">Isa 11:9</a>), when all "from the least of them unto the greatest of them" shall know him (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',31,34);">Jer 31:34</a>). Concerning the so-called "schools of the prophets" which, in the days of Elijah, existed at Bethel, Jericho and Gilgal (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',2,3,5);">2Ki 2:3, 5</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',4,38);">4:38</a>f), and probably in other places, it should be noted that these were associations or brotherhoods established for the purpose of mutual edification rather than education. The Bible does not use the word "schools" to designate these fraternities. Nevertheless, we cannot conceive of the element of religious training as being entirely absent.<P>3. Deuteronomic Legislation:<P>Shortly before the Babylonian captivity King Josiah gave official recognition and sanction to the teachings of the prophets, while the Deuteronomic legislation of the same period strongly emphasized the responsibility of parents for the religious and moral instruction and training of their children. Concerning the words of the law Israel is admonished: "Thou shalt teach them diligently unto thy children, and shalt talk of them when thou sittest in thy house, and when thou walkest by the way, and when thou liest down, and when thou risest up" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',6,7);">De 6:7</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',11,19);">11:19</a>). For the benefit of children as well as adults the law was to be written "upon the door-posts" and "gates" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',6,9);">De 6:9</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',11,20);">11:20</a>), and "very plainly" upon "great stones" set up for this purpose upon the hilltops and beside the altars (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',27,\'1-8\');">De 27:1-8</a>). From the Deuteronomic period forward, religious training to the Jew became the synonym of education, while the word Torah, which originally denoted simply "Law" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',24,12);">Ex 24:12</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',7,1);">Le 7:1</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',26,46);">26:46</a>), came to mean "religious instruction or teaching," in which sense it is used in <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',4,44);">De 4:44</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',5,1);">5:1</a>, "This is the law which Moses set before the children of Israel:...Hear, O Israel, the statutes and the ordinances which I speak in your ears this day, that ye may learn them, and observe to do them"; and in <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',6,23);">Pr 6:23</a>,<P class="in15">"For the commandment is a lamp; and the law is light;<br>And reproofs of instruction are the way of life."<P class="in15">(Compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',19,8);">Ps 19:8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',3,1);">Pr 3:1</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',4,2);">4:2</a>.)<P>4. Reading and Writing:<P>With the development and reorganization of the ritual, priests and Levites, as the guardians of the law, were the principal instructors of the people, while parents remained in charge of the training of the children. In families of the aristocracy the place of the parents was sometimes taken by tutors, as appears from the case of the infant Solomon, whose training stems to have been entrusted to the prophet Nathan (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',12,25);">2Sa 12:25</a>). There is no way of determining to what extent the common people were able to read and write. Our judgment that these rudiments of formal education in the modern sense were not restricted to the higher classes is based upon such passages as <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',29,11,12);">Isa 29:11-12</a>, which distinguishes between the man who "is learned" (literally, "knoweth letters") and the one who is "not learned," and <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',10,19);">Isa 10:19</a>, referring to the ability of a child "to write," taken together with such facts as that the literary prophets Amos and Micah sprang from the ranks of the common people, and that "the workman who excavated the tunnel from the Virgin\'s Spring to the Pool of Siloam carved in the rock the manner of their work" (Kennedy in HDB). It should be added that the later Jewish tradition reflected in the Talmud, Targum and Midrash, and which represents both public, elementary and college education as highly developed even in patriarchal times, is generally regarded as altogether untrustworthy.<P>III. Education in Later Israel.<P>The national disaster that befell the Hebrew people in the downfall of Jerusalem and the Babylonian captivity was not without its compensating, purifying and stimulating influence upon the religious and educational development of the nation. Under the pressure of adverse external circumstances the only source of comfort for the exiled people was in the law and covenant of Yahweh, while the shattering of all hope of immediate national greatness turned the thought and attention of the religious leaders away from the present toward the future. Two types of Messianic expectation characterized the religious development of the exilic period. The first is the priestly, material hope of return and restoration reflected in the prophecies of Ezekiel. The exiled tribes are to return again to Jerusalem; the temple is to be restored, its ritual and worship purified and exalted, the priestly ordinance and service elaborated. The second is the spiritualized and idealized Messianic expectation of the Second Isaiah, based on teachings of the earlier prophets. For the greatest of Hebrew prophets Yahweh is the only God, and the God of all nations as well as of Israel. For him Israel is Yahweh\'s servant, His instrument for revealing Himself to other nations, who, when they witness the redemption of Yahweh\'s suffering Servant, will bow down to Yahweh and acknowledge His rule. "Thus the trials of the nation lead to a comprehensive universalism within which the suffering Israel gains an elevated and ennobling explanation" (Ames, PRE, 185). In the prophetic vision of Ezekiel we must seek the inspiration for the later development of Jewish ritual, as well as the basis of those eschatological hopes and expectations which find their fuller expression in the apocalypse of Daniel and the kindred literature of the later centuries. The prophecies of the Isaiahs and the Messianic hope which these kindled in the hearts of the faithful prepared the way for the teachings of Jesus concerning a Divine spiritual kingdom, based upon the personal, ethical character of the individual and the mutual, spiritual fellowship of believers.<P>1. Educational Significance of the Prophets:<P>The educational significance of the prophetic writings of this as of the preceding periods is that the prophets themselves were the real religious leaders and representative men (Kulturtrager) of the nation. In advance of their age they were the heralds of Divine truth; the watchmen on the mountain tops whose clear insight into the future detected the significant elements in the social and religious conditions and tendencies about them, and whose keen intellect and lofty faith grasped the eternal principles which are the basis of all individual and national integrity and worth. These truths and principles they impressed upon the consciousness of their own and succeeding generations, thereby giving to future teachers of their race the essence of their message, and preparing the way for the larger and fuller interpretation of religion and life contained in the teachings of Jesus. The immediate influence of their teaching is explained in part by the variety and effectiveness of their teaching method, their marvelous simplicity and directness of speech, their dramatic emphasis upon essentials and their intelligent appreciation of social conditions and problems about them.<P>2. The Book of the Law:<P>The immediate bond of union, as well as the textbook and program of religious instruction, during the period of the captivity and subsequently, was the Book of the Law, which the exiles carried with them to Babylon. When in 458 BC a company of exiles returned to Palestine, they along with their poorer brethren who had not been carried away, restored the Jewish community at Jerusalem, and under the suzerainty of Persia, founded a new nationalism, based, even more than had been the earlier monarchy, upon the theocratic conception of Israel\'s relation to Yahweh. During this period it was that writings of poets, lawgivers, prophets and sages were brought together into one sacred collection of scrolls, known later as the Old Testament canon, of which the Torah (the law) was educationally the most significant. The recognized teachers of this period included, in addition to the priests and Levites, the "wise men," or "sages" and the "scribes" or copherim (literally, "those learned in Scriptures").<P>3. Wise Men or Sages:<P>Whether or not the sages and scribes of the later post-exilic times are to be regarded as one and the same class, as an increasing number of scholars are inclined to believe, or thought of as distinct classes, the wise men clearly antedate, not only the copherim but in all probability all forms of book learning as well. Suggestions of their existence and function are met with in earliest times both in Israel and among other nations of the east. As illustrations of their appearance in preexilic Old Testament history may be cited the references in <a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',14,\'1-20\');">2Sa 14:1-20</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',4,32);">1Ki 4:32</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',29,10);">Isa 29:10</a>. It is no lesser personage than King Solomon who, both by his contemporaries and later generations as well, was regarded as the greatest representative of this earlier group of teachers who uttered their wisdom in the form of clever, epigrammatic proverbs and shrewd sayings. The climax of Wisdom-teaching belongs, however, to the later post-exilic period. Of the wise men of this later day an excellent description is preserved for us in the Book of Ecclesiasticus 39:3-10; 1:1-11<P class="in15">"He seeks out the hidden meaning of proverbs,<br >And is conversant with the subtleties of parables,<br >He serves among great men,<br >And appears before him who rules;<br >He travels through the land of strange nations;<br >For he hath tried good things and evil among men".<br>"He shows forth the instruction which he has been taught,<br >And glories in the law of the covenant of the Lord".<br >"Nations shall declare his wisdom,<br >And the congregation shall tell out his praise."<P>4. The Book of Proverbs:<P>Of the pedagogic experience, wisdom and learning of these sages, the Book of Proverbs forms the Biblical repository. Aside from the Torah it is thus the oldest handbook of education. The wise men conceive of life itself as a discipline. Parents are the natural instructors of their children:<P>"My son, hear the instruction of thy father, And forsake not the law of thy mother." <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',1,8);">Pr 1:8</a>.<P>(Compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',4,\'1-4\');">4:1-4ff</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',6,20);">6:20</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',13,1);">13:1</a>.) The substance of such parental teaching is to be the \'fear of Yahweh\' which "is the beginning of wisdom"; and fidelity in the performance of this parental obligation has the promise of success: "Train up a child in the way he should go, And even when he is old he will not depart from it." <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',22,6);">Pr 22:6</a>.<P>In their training of children, parents are to observe sternness, not hesitating to apply the rod of correction, when needed (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',23,13,14);">Pr 23:13-14</a>), yet doing so with discretion, since wise reproof is better than "a hundred stripes" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',17,10);">Pr 17:10</a>). Following the home training there is provision for further instruction at the hands of professional teachers for all who would really obtain unto "wisdom" and who can afford the time and expense of such special training. The teachers are none other than the wise men or sages whose words "heard in quiet" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',9,17);">Ec 9:17</a>) are "as goads, and as nails well fastened" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',12,11);">Ec 12:11</a>). Their precepts teach diligence Pr (<a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',6,\'6-11\');">6:6-11</a>), chastity (<a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',7,5);">7:5</a>), charity (<a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',14,21);">14:21</a>), truthfulness (<a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',17,7);">17:7</a>) and temperance (<a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',21,17);">21:17</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',23,20,21,\'29-35\');">23:20, 21, 29-35</a>); for the aim of all Wisdom-teaching is none other than<P class="in15">"To give prudence to the simple,<br>To the young man knowledge and discretion:<br>That the wise man may hear, and increase in learning;<br>And that the man of understanding may attain unto sound counsels."<br> <20> <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',1,4,5);">Pr 1:4-5</a>.<P>5. Scribes and Levites:<P>The copherim or "men of book learning" were editors and interpreters as well as scribes or copyists of ancient and current writings. As a class they did not become prominent until the wise men, as such, stepped into the background, nor until the exigencies of the situation demanded more teachers and teaching than the ranks of priests and Levites, charged with increasing ritualistic duties, could supply. Ezra was both a priest and a copher (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ezr\',7,11);">Ezr 7:11</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Neh\',8,1);">Ne 8:1</a>f), concerning whom we read that he "set his heart to seek the law of Yahweh, and to do it, and to teach in Israel statutes and ordinances" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ezr\',7,10);">Ezr 7:10</a>). Likewise the Levites often appear as teachers of the law, and we must think of the development of sopherism (scribism) as a distinct profession as proceeding very gradually. The same is true of the characteristic Jewish religious-educational institution, the synagogue, the origin and development of which fell within this same general period (compare <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=SYNAGOGUE">SYNAGOGUE</a>). The pupils of the copherim were the Pharisees (perushim or "separatists") who during the Maccabean period came to be distinguished from the priestly party or Sadducees.<P>6. Greek and Roman Influences:<P>The conquest of Persia by Alexander (332 BC) marks the rise of Greek influence in Palestine. Alexander himself visited Palestine and perhaps Jerusalem (Josephus, Ant, X, i, 8), befriended the Jews and granted to them the privilege of seir-government, and the maintenance of their own social and religious customs, both at home and in Alexandria, the new center of Greek learning, in the founding of which many Jews participated (see <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ALEXANDRIA">ALEXANDRIA</a>). During the succeeding dynasty of the Ptolemies, Greek ideas and Greek culture penetrated to the very heart of Judaism at Jerusalem, and threatened the overthrow of Jewish social and religious institutions. The Maccabean revolt under Antiochus Epiphanes (174-164 BC) and the reestablishment of a purified temple ritual during the early part of the Maccabean period (161-63 BC) were the natural reaction against the attempt of the Seleucids forcibly to substitute the Greek gymnasium and theater for the Jewish synagogue and temple (Felten, NZ, I, 83f; compare 1Macc 1, 3, 9, 13 and 2Macc 4-10). The end of the Maccabean period found Phariseeism and strict Jewish orthodoxy in the ascendancy with such Hellenic tendencies as had found permanent lodgment in Judaism reflected in the agnosticism of the aristocratic Sadducees. The establishment of Roman authority in Palestine (63 BC) introduced a new determining element into the environmental conditions under which Judaism was to attain its final distinguishing characteristics. The genius of the Romans was practical, legalistic and institutional. As organizers and administrators they were preeminent. But their religion never inspired to any exalted view of life, and education to them meant always merely a preparation for life\'s practical duties. Hence, the influence of Roman authority upon Judaism was favorable to the development of a narrow individualistic Phariseeism, rather than to the fostering of Greek idealism and universalism. With the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans a little more than a century later (70 AD) and the cessation of the temple worship, the Sadducees as a class disappeared from Judaism, which has ever since been represented by the Pharisees devoted to the study of the law. Outside of Jerusalem and Palestine, meanwhile, the Jewish communities at Alexandria and elsewhere were much more hospitable to Greek culture and learning, at the same time exerting a reciprocal, modifying influence upon Greek thought. It was, however, through its influence upon early Christian theology and education that the Hellenistic philosophy of the Alexandrian school left its deeper impress upon the substance and method of later Christian education.<P>IV. Education in New Testament Times.<P>Elementary schools: Jewish education in the time of Christ was of the orthodox traditional type and in the hands of scribes, Pharisees and learned rabbis. The home was still the chief institution for the dispensation of elementary instruction, although synagogues, with attached schools for the young were to be found in every important Jewish community. Public elementary schools, other than those connected with the synagogues were of slower growth and do not seem to have been common until, some time after Joshua ben Gamala, high priest from 63-65 AD, ordered that teachers be appointed in every province and city to instruct children having attained the age of 6-7 years. In the synagogue schools the chazzan, or attendant, not infrequently served as schoolmaster (compare <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=SCHOOL">SCHOOL</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=SCHOOLMASTER">SCHOOLMASTER</a>).<P>1. Subject Matter of Instruction:<P>As in earlier times the Torah, connoting now the sacred Old Testament writings as a whole, though with emphasis still upon the law, furnished the subject-matter of instruction. To this were added, in the secondary schools (colleges) of the rabbis, the illustrative and parabolical rabbinical interpretation of the law (the haggadhah) and its application to daily life in the form of concise precept or rule of conduct (the halakhah). Together the haggadhah and halakhah furnish the content of the Talmud (or Talmuds), as the voluminous collections of orthodox Jewish teachings of later centuries came to be known.<P>2. Method and Aims:<P>As regards teaching method the scribes and rabbis of New Testament times did not improve much upon the practice of the copherim and sages of earlier centuries. Memorization, the exact reproduction by the pupil of the master\'s teaching, rather than general knowledge or culture, was the main objective. Since the voice of prophecy had become silent and the canon of revealed truth was considered closed, the intellectual mastery and interpretation of this sacred revelation of the past was the only aim that education on its intellectual side could have. On its practical side it sought, as formerly, the inculcation of habits of strict ritualistic observance, obedience to the letter of the law as a condition of association and fellowship with the selected company of true Israelites to which scribes and Pharisees considered themselves to belong. The success with which the teachings of the scribes and rabbis were accompanied is an evidence of their devotion to their work, and more still of the psychological insight manifested by them in utilizing every subtle means and method for securing and holding the attention of their pupils, and making their memories the trained and obedient servants of an educational ideal. The defects in their work were largely the defects in that ideal. Their theory and philosophy of education were narrow. "Their eyes were turned too much to the past rather than the present and future." They failed to distinguish clearly the gold from the dross in their inherited teachings, or to adapt these to the vital urgent needs of the common people. In its struggle against foreign cults and foreign culture, Judaism had encased itself in a shell of stereotyped orthodoxy, the attempt to adapt which to new conditions and to a constantly changing social order resulted in an insincere and shallow casuistry of which the fantastic conglomerate mass of Talmudic wisdom of the 4th and 6th centuries is the lasting memorial.<P>3. Valuable Results of Jewish Education:<P>Nevertheless, Jewish education, though defective both in matter and in method, and tending to fetter rather than to free the mind, achieved four valuable results:<P>(1) it developed a taste for close, critical study;<P>(2) it sharpened the wits, even to the point of perversity;<P>(3) it encouraged a reverence for law and produced desirable social conduct; and<P>(4) it formed a powerful bond of union among the Jewish people. To these four points of excellence enumerated by Davidson (Historia Ecclesiastica, 80) must be added a fifth which, briefly stated, is this:<P>(5) Jewish education by its consistent teaching of lofty monotheism, and its emphasis, sometimes incidental add sometimes outstanding, upon righteousness and holiness of life as a condition of participation in a future Messianic kingdom, prepared the way for the Christian view of God and the world, set forth in its original distinctness of outline and incomparable simplicity in the teachings of Jesus.<P>4. The Preeminence of Jesus as a Teacher:<P>Jesus was more than a teacher; but He was a teacher first. To His contemporaries he appeared as a Jewish rabbi of exceptional influence and popularity. He used the teaching methods of the rabbis; gathered about Him, as did they, a group of chosen disciples (learners) whom He trained and taught more explicitly with a view to perpetuating through them His own influence and work. His followers called Him Rabbi and Master, and the scribes and Pharisees conceded His popularity and power. He taught, as did the rabbis of His time, in the temple courts, in the synagogue, in private, and on the public highway as the exigencies of the case demanded. His textbook, so far as He used any, was the same as theirs; His form of speech (parable and connected discourse), manner of life and methods of instruction were theirs. Yet into His message and method He put a new note of authority that challenged attention and inspired confidence. Breaking with the traditions of the past He substituted for devotion to the letter of the law an interest in men, with boundless sympathy for their misfortune, abiding faith in their worth and high destiny and earnest solicitude for their regeneration and perfection. To say that Jesus was the world\'s greatest and foremost example as a teacher is to state a fact borne out by every inquiry, test and comparison that modern educational science can apply to the work and influence of its great creative geniuses of the past. Where His contemporaries and even His own followers saw only "as in a glass, darkly," He saw clearly; and His view of God and the world, of human life and human destiny, has come down through the ages as a Divine revelation vouchsafed the world in Him. Viewed from the intellectual side, it was the life philosophy of Jesus that made His teachings imperishable; esthetically it was the compassionate tenderness and solicitude of His message that drew the multitudes to Him; judged from the standpoint of will, it was the example of His life, its purpose, its purity, its helpfulness, that caused men to follow Him; and tested by its immediate and lasting social influence, it was the doctrine, the ideal and example of the human brotherliness and Divine sonship, that made Jesus the pattern of the great teachers of mankind in every age and generation. With a keen, penetrating insight into the ultimate meaning of life, He reached out, as it were, over the conflicting opinions of men and the mingling social and cultural currents of His time backward to the fundamental truths uttered by the ancient prophets of His race and forward to the ultimate goal of the race. Then with simple directness of speech He addressed Himself to the consciences and wills of men, setting before them the ideal of the higher life, and with infinite patience sought to lift them to the plane of fellowship with Himself in thought and action.<P>5. Educational Work of the Early Disciples:<P>It remained for the disciples of Jesus to perpetuate His teaching ministry and to organize the new forces making for human betterment. In this work, which was distinctly religious-educational in character, some found a field of labor among their own Jewish kinsmen, and others, like Paul, among the needy Gentiles (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gal\',1,16);">Ga 1:16</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Gal\',2,7);">2:7</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ti\',2,7);">1Ti 2:7</a>). As regards a division of labor in the apostolic church, we read of apostles, prophets, evangelists, pastors and teachers (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',12,28);">1Co 12:28</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eph\',4,11);">Eph 4:11</a>). The apostles were the itinerant leaders and missionaries of the entire church. Their work was largely that of teaching, Paul insisting on calling himself a teacher as well as an apostle (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ti\',1,11);">2Ti 1:11</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',4,17);">1Co 4:17</a>). The prophets were men with a special message like that of Agabus (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',21,10,11);">Ac 21:10-11</a>). The evangelists were itinerant preachers, as was Philip (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',8,40);">Ac 8:40</a>), while the pastors, also called bishops, had permanent charge of individual churches. The professional teachers included both laymen and those ordained by the laying on of hands. Their work was regarded with highest honor in the church and community. In contrast with the itinerant church officers, apostles and evangelists, they, like the pastors, resided permanently in local communities. With this class the author of the Epistle of James identifies himself, and there can be little doubt that the epistle which he wrote reflects both the content and form of the instruction which these earliest Christian teachers gave to their pupils. Before the close of the 1st century the religious educational work of the church had been organized into a more systematic form, out of which there developed gradually the catechumenate of the early post-apostolic period (see <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=CATECHIST">CATECHIST</a>). In the Didache, or Teachings of the Apostles, there has been reserved for us a textbook of religious instruction from this earlier period (Kent, GTJC). Necessarily, the entire missionary and evangelistic work of the apostolic church was educational in character, and throughout this earliest period of church history we must think of the work of apostles, evangelists and pastors, as well as that of professional teachers, as including a certain amount of systematic religious instruction.<P>See further <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=SCHOOL">SCHOOL</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=TEACHER">TEACHER</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=TUTOR">TUTOR</a>.<P>LITERATURE.<P>Ames, Psychology of Religious Experience, chapter x; Box, article "Education," in Encyclopedia Biblica; Butler, The Meaning of Education; Davidson, History of Education; Dewey, article "Education," in Monroe\'s Cyclopedia of Education; Edersheim, "The Upbringing of Jewish Children," in SJSL, and Life and Times of Jesus, I, 225f; Fairweather, Background of the Gospels; Felten, "Schriftgelehrten, Synagogen u. Schulen," in Neutestamentliche Zeitgeschichte, I; Ginsburg, article "Education," in Kitto\'s Biblical Cyclopedia; Hiegemoser u. Bock, Quellenbuch u. Uberblick d. Geschichte d. Padagogik; Katzer, articles "Jesus als Lehrer" and "Judenchristenturn," in Rein\'s Encyklopadisches Handbuch d. Padagogik; Kennedy, article "Education," in HDB, I; Kohler and Gudemann, article "Education" in Jewish Encyclopedia, V; Kent, Great Teachers of Judaism and Christianity and Makers and Teachers of Judaism; Laurie, Historical Survey of Pre-Christian Education; Lewit, Darstellung d. theoretischen u. praktischen Padagogik im jud. Altertume; Oehler, article "Padagogik d. Alten Testaments," in Schmid\'s Encyclopadie d. Gesammten Erziehungs-u. Unterrichtswesen; Schurer, "Schriftgelehrsamkeit, Schule u. Synagoge," in Geschichte d. jud. Volkes (ed 1907); W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites; Straussburger, Geschichte d. Unterrichts bei d. Israeliten; von Rohden, article "Katechetik" in Rein\'s EHP.``118';
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isbe[2898]='Eduth`e\'-duth (\'edhuth, "testimony," a technical term for the Ten Commandments or for the Law):<P>In <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',60,1);">Ps 60 title</a>, "set to Shushan Eduth" (literally, "a lily (is) the testimony"); <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',80,1);">80 title</a>, "set to Shoshannim Eduth" (literally, "lilies (is) the testimony"). The Hebrew words appear to be intended to designate a melody by the first few words ordinarily associated with it.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=PSALMS">PSALMS</a>`1';
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isbe[2899]='Effect; Effectual`e-fekt\', e-fek\'-tu-al:<P>In the Old Testament, the Revised Version (British and American) renders "fulfilment" for "effect" in <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',12,23);">Eze 12:23</a> (Hebrew dabhar, "matter"); and in <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',48,30);">Jer 48:30</a> "His boastings have wrought nothing" for the vaguer "His lies shall not so effect" of the King James Version. In the King James Version of the New Testament, "make of none effect" occurs repeatedly: as the translation of Greek akuroo, "render void" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',15,6);">Mt 15:6</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',7,13);">Mr 7:13</a>); of katargeo, "annul" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',3,3);">Ro 3:3</a> (the King James Version "make without effect"); <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',4,14);">Ro 4:14</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Gal\',3,17);">Ga 3:17</a>); and of kenoo, "make empty" (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',1,17);">1Co 1:17</a>). the Revised Version (British and American) renders "make of none effect" in <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',3,3);">Ro 3:3</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Gal\',3,17);">Ga 3:17</a>; "make void" in the other cases, with no apparent reason for the lack of uniformity. Greek energeo is the opposite in meaning of katargeo above. Its derivative energes, "effective," is rendered "effectual" by English Versions of the Bible in <a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',16,9);">1Co 16:9</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Phm\',1,6);">Phm 1:6</a>. the Revised Version (British and American) dispenses with "effectual," "effectually," in the other cases where the King James Version has used these words as auxiliary in the translation of energeo or of energeia, "working" (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',1,6);">2Co 1:6</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Gal\',2,8);">Ga 2:8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eph\',3,7);">Eph 3:7</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eph\',4,16);">4:16</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Th\',2,13);">1Th 2:13</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jam\',5,16);">Jas 5:16</a>).``57';
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isbe[2900]='Egg`(betsah; oon; Latin ovum):<P>An oval or spheroid body produced by birds, fishes and reptiles, from which their young emerge when incubated or naturally developed. The fertile egg of a bird consists of the yolk, a small disk from which the embryo develops, the albuminous white, and a calcareous shell. The most ancient records prove that eggs have been used as an article of diet ever since the use of the flesh of fowl began. Chickens were unknown in Palestine in the days of Job, so that his query concerning the taste of the white of an egg might have referred to those of pigeons, ducks, eggs taken from the nests of geese or swans, game birds or ostriches. "Can that which hath no savor be eaten without salt? Or is there any taste in the white of an egg?" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',6,6);">Job 6:6</a>, the Revised Version, margin "the juice of purslain"). In <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',11,12);">Lu 11:12</a> there is every possibility that the egg of our common domestic fowl is referred to as "<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=CHICKEN">chickens</a>" (which see) had been imported and were numerous in Palestine at that time. "Or if he shall ask an egg, will he give him a scorpion?" The reference in <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',59,5);">Isa 59:5</a> is to the egg of a serpent, and is figurative of the schemes of evil men: "They hatch adders\' eggs, and weave the spider\'s web: he that eateth of their eggs dieth; and that which is crushed breaketh out into a viper."``167';
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