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isbe[4601]='Influences`in\'-floo-ens-iz (ma\'adhannoth): This word occurs only in <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',38,31);">Job 38:31</a> the King James Version, "Canst thou bind the sweet influences of Pleiades?" the Revised Version (British and American) "the cluster of the Pleiades," margin "or chain, or sweet influences"; Delitzsch, Dillmann and others render "fetters," that which binds the group together; "influences," if correct, would refer to the seasons, which were believed to be regulated, so far, by the <a href="study/isbe/search.html?string=PLEIADES">PLEIADES</A> (which see). In The <span class="noTag">Wisdom of Solomon 7:25</span>, it is said of Wisdom that she is "a pure influence (aporrhoia, the Revised Version (British and American) "effluence") flowing from the glory of the Almighty."``185';
isbe[4602]='Ingathering, Feasts of`in\'-gath-er-ing.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=FEASTS+AND+FASTS">FEASTS AND FASTS</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=BOOTH">BOOTH</a>`1';
isbe[4603]='Inhabit; Inhabitant`in-hab\'-it, in-hab\'-it-ant (yashabh, "to sit," "remain, "dwell," "inhabit" shakhen, "to settle down" "tabernacle," "dwell"; katoikeo, "to settle," "dwell"): See <a href="study/isbe/search.html?string=DWELL">DWELL</A>. The verb "to inhabit," now used only transitively, had once an intransitive meaning as well. Compare Cowper, Olney Hymns, XIV,<P>"Who built it, who inhabits there?"<P>So in <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',5,9);">1Ch 5:9</a> the King James Version, "And eastward he inhabited unto the entering in of the wilderness" (but the Revised Version (British and American) "dwelt"). We have the obsolete inhabiters for "inhabitants" in <a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',8,13);">Re 8:13</a> the King James Version (but the Revised Version (British and American) "them that dwell") and <a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',12,12);">Re 12:12</a> the King James Version (but omitted in the Revised Version (British and American)). The rare inhabitress (feminine) is found only in <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',10,17);">Jer 10:17</a> margin; "the church called the inhabitress of the gardens" (Bishop Richardson).``49';
isbe[4604]='Inheritance`in-her\'-i-tans (nahalah, "something inherited," "occupancy," "heirloom," "estate," "portion"): The word is used in its widest application in the Old Testament Scriptures, referring not only to an estate received by a child from its parents, but also to the land received by the children of Israel as a gift from Yahweh. And in the figurative and poetical sense, the expression is applied to the kingdom of God as represented in the consecrated lives of His followers. In a similar sense, the Psalmist is represented as speaking of the Lord as the portion of his inheritance. In addition to the above word, the King James Version translations as inheritance, morashah, "a possession," "heritage" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',33,4);">De 33:4</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',33,24);">Eze 33:24</a>); yerushshah, "something occupied," "a patrimony," "possession" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',21,17);">Jud 21:17</a>); cheleq, "smoothness," "allotment" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',16,5);">Ps 16:5</a>); kleronomeo, "to inherit" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',5,5);">Mt 5:5</a>, etc.); kleronomos, "heir" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',21,38);">Mt 21:38</a>, etc.); kleronomia, "heirship," "patrimony, "possession"; or kleros, "an acquisition" "portion," "heritage," from kleroo, "to assign," "to allot," "to obtain an inheritance" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',21,38);">Mt 21:38</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',12,13);">Lu 12:13</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',7,5);">Ac 7:5</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',20,32);">20:32</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',26,18);">26:18</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Gal\',3,18);">Ga 3:18</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eph\',1,11,14,18);">Eph 1:11, 14, 18</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eph\',5,5);">5:5</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Col\',1,12);">Col 1:12</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Col\',3,24);">3:24</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Hbr\',1,4);">Heb 1:4</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Hbr\',9,15);">9:15</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Hbr\',11,8);">11:8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Pe\',1,4);">1Pe 1:4</a>).<P>The Pentateuch distinguishes clearly between real and personal property, the fundamental idea regarding the former being the thought that the land is God\'s, given by Him to His children, the people of Israel, and hence, cannot be alienated (<a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',25,23,28);">Le 25:23, 28</a>). In order that there might not be any respecter of persons in the division, the lot was to determine the specific piece to be owned by each family head (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',26,\'52-56\');">Nu 26:52-56</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',33,54);">33:54</a>). In case, through necessity of circumstances, a homestead was sold, the title could pass only temporarily; for in the year of Jubilee every homestead must again return to the original owner or heir (<a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',25,\'25-34\');">Le 25:25-34</a>). Real estate given to the priesthood must be appraised, and could be redeemed by the payment of the appraised valuation, thus preventing the transfer of real property even in this case (<a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',27,\'14-25\');">Le 27:14-25</a>). Inheritance was controlled by the following regulations:<P>(1) The firstborn son inherited a double portion of all the father\'s possession (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',21,\'15-17\');">De 21:15-17</a>);<P>(2) the daughters were entitled to an inheritance, provided there were no sons in the family (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',27,8);">Nu 27:8</a>);<P>(3) in case there were no direct heirs, the brothers or more distant kinsmen were recognized (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',27,\'9-11\');">27:9-11</A>); in no case should an estate pass from one tribe to another.<P>The above points were made the subject of statutory law at the instance of the daughters of Zelophehad, the entire case being clearly set forth in <a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',27,\'1-\');">Nu 27</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',36,\'1-\');">36</a>.``77';
isbe[4605]='Iniquity`in-ik\'-wi-ti (\'awon; anomia): In the Old Testament of the 11 words translated "iniquity," by far the most common and important is \'awon (about 215 times). Etymologically, it is customary to explain it as meaning literally "crookedness," "perverseness," i.e. evil regarded as that which is not straight or upright, moral distortion (from \'iwwah, "to bend," "make crooked," "pervert"). Driver, however (following Lagarde), maintains that two roots, distinct in Arabic, have been confused in Hebrew, one equals "to bend," "pervert" (as above), and the other equals "to err," "go astray"; that \'awon is derived from the latter, and consequently expresses the idea of error, deviation from the right path, rather than that of perversion (Driver, Notes on Sam, 135 note) Whichever etymology is adopted, in actual usage it has three meanings which almost imperceptibly pass into each other:<P>(1) iniquity,<P>(2) guilt of iniquity,<P>(3) punishment of iniquity.<P>Primarily, it denotes "not an action, but the character of an action" (Oehler), and is so distinguished from "sin" (chatta\'th). Hence, we have the expression "the iniquity of my sin" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',32,5);">Ps 32:5</a>). Thus the meaning glides into that of "guilt," which might often take the place of "iniquity" as the translation of \'awon (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',15,16);">Ge 15:16</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',34,7);">Ex 34:7</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',2,22);">Jer 2:22</a>, etc.). From "guilt" it again passes into the meaning of "punishment of guilt," just as Latin piaculum may denote both guilt and its punishment. The transition is all the easier in Hebrew because of the Hebrew sense of the intimate relation of sin and suffering, e.g. <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',4,13);">Ge 4:13</a>, "My punishment is greater than I can bear"; which is obviously to be preferred to King James Version margin, the Revised Version, margin "Mine iniquity is greater than can be forgiven," for Cain is not so much expressing sorrow for his sin, as complaining of the severity of his punishment; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',7,9);">2Ki 7:9</a> (the Revised Version (British and American) "punishment," the Revised Version margin "iniquity"); <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',5,18);">Isa 5:18</a> (where for "iniquity" we might have "punishment of iniquity," as in <a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',26,41,43);">Le 26:41, 43</a>, etc.); <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',40,2);">Isa 40:2</a> ("iniquity," the Revised Version margin "punishment"). The phrase "bear iniquity" is a standing expression for bearing its consequences, i.e. its penalty; generally of the sinner bearing the results of his own iniquity (<a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',17,16);">Le 17:16</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',20,17,19);">20:17, 19</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',14,34);">Nu 14:34</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',44,10);">Eze 44:10</a>, etc.), but sometimes of one bearing the iniquity of another vicariously, and so taking it away (e.g. <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',4,4);">Eze 4:4</a>f; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',18,19);">18:19</A>f). Of special interest in the latter sense are the sufferings of the Servant of Yahweh, who shall "bear the iniquities" of the people (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',53,11);">Isa 53:11</a>; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',53,6);">Isa 53:6</a>).<P>Other words frequently translated "iniquity" are: \'awen, literally, "worthlessness," "vanity," hence, "naughtiness," "mischief" (47 times in the King James Version, especially in the phrase "workers of iniquity," <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',4,8);">Job 4:8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',5,5);">Ps 5:5</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',6,8);">6:8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',10,29);">Pr 10:29</a>, etc.); \'awel and \'awlah, literally, "perverseness" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',32,4);">De 32:4</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',6,29);">Job 6:29</a> the King James Version, etc.).<P>In the New Testament "iniquity" stands for anomia equals properly, "the condition of one without law," "lawlessness" (so translated in <a onClick="return mV(\'1Jo\',3,4);">1Joh 3:4</a>, elsewhere "iniquity," e.g. <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',7,23);">Mt 7:23</a>), a word which frequently stood for \'awon in the Septuagint; and adikia, literally, "unrighteousness" (e.g. <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',13,27);">Lu 13:27</a>).``49';
isbe[4606]='Injoin`in-join\'.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ENJOIN">ENJOIN</a>`1';
isbe[4607]='Injurious`in-joo\'-ri-us, in-ju\'-ri-us (hubristes, "insolent"): In former usage, the word was strongly expressive of insult as well as hurtfulness. So in <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ti\',1,13);">1Ti 1:13</a>. In <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',1,30);">Ro 1:30</a> the same adjective is translated "insolent" (the King James Version "despiteful").``1';
isbe[4608]='Injury`in\'-ju-ri, in\'-joo-ri.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=CRIMES">CRIMES</a>`1';
isbe[4609]='Ink`ink (deyo, from root meaning "slowly flowing," BDB, 188; melan, "black"): Any fluid substance used with pen or brush to form written characters. In this sense ink is mentioned once in the Hebrew Bible (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',36,2);">Jer 36:2</a>) and 3 times in the Greek New Testament (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',3,3);">2Co 3:3</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Jo\',1,12);">2Joh 1:12</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'3Jo\',1,13);">3Joh 1:13</a>), and it is implied in all references to writing on papyrus or on leather. The inference from the "blotting out" of <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',32,33);">Ex 32:33</a> and <a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',5,23);">Nu 5:23</a> that the Hebrew ink was a lamp-black and gum, or some other dry ink, is confirmed by the general usage of antiquity, by the later Jewish prejudice against other inks (OTJC, 71 note) and by a Jewish receipt referring to ink-tablets (Drach, "Notice sur l\'encre des Hebreux," Ann. philos. chret., 42, 45, 353). The question is, however, now being put on a wholly new basis by the study of the Elephantine Jewish documents (Meyer, Papyrusfund2, 1912, 15, 21), and above all of the Harvard Ostraca from Samaria which give actual specimens of the ink in Palestine in the time of Ahab (Harvard Theological Review, Jan. 1911, 136-43). It is likely, however, that during the long period of Bible history various inks were used. The official copy of the law in the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus was, according to Josephus (Ant., XII, ii, 11), written in gold, and the vermilion and red paints and dyes mentioned in <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',22,14);">Jer 22:14</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',23,14);">Eze 23:14</a>, and The <span class="noTag">Wisdom of Solomon 13:14</span> (milto kai phukei) were probably used also for writing books or coloring incised inscriptions. See literature under <a href="study/isbe/search.html?string=WRITING,+1">WRITING</A>; especially Krauss, Talmud, Arch. 3, 148-53; Gardthausen, Greek Palestine, 1911, I, 202-17, and his bibliographical references passim.``147';
isbe[4610]='Ink-Horn`ink\'-horn (keceth equals keseth, BDB, 903): This term "inkhorn" occurs 3 times in <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',9,\'1-\');">Eze 9</a> (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',9,2,3,11);">9:2,3,11</a>), in the phrase "writer\'s inkhorn upon his loins" (or "by his side"). The word is more exactly "implement case," or "writing-case" (calamarium atramentarium, theca calamaria, theca libraria, graphiaria). This may have been the Egyptian palette (Budge, Mummy, 350-52) seen so often in the monuments of all periods, or the later form of pen-case with ink-well attached, which is a modified form adapted for ink carried in fluid form. The Egyptian palette was carried characteristically over the shoulder or under the arm, neither of which methods is strictly "upon the loins." The manner of carrying, therefore, was doubtless in the girdle, as in modern oriental usage (Benzinger, Hebrew Archaeol., 185). A good example of the pen-case and inkwell writing-case (given also in Garucci, Daremberg-Saglio, Gardthausen, etc.) is given from the original in Birt, Die Buchrolle in der Kunst,220,and is reproduced (a) in this article, together with (b) an Egyptian palette. Whether the form of Ezekiel\'s case approached the palette or the ink-well type probably depends on the question of whether dry ink or fluid ink was used in Ezekiel\'s time (see <a href="study/isbe/search.html?string=INK">INK</A>). Compare Hieronymus at the place, and for literature, see <a href="study/isbe/search.html?string=WRITING,+1">WRITING</A>, and especially Gardthausen, Greek Palestine,1911,I, 193-94.``147';
isbe[4611]='Inn`(malon; pandocheion, kataluma):<P>1. Earliest Night Resting-Places:<P>The Hebrew word malon means literally, a "night resting-place," and might be applied to any spot where caravans (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',42,27);">Ge 42:27</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',43,21);">43:21</a> the King James Version), individuals (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',4,24);">Ex 4:24</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',9,2);">Jer 9:2</a>), or even armies (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',4,3,8);">Jos 4:3, 8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',19,23);">2Ki 19:23</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',10,29);">Isa 10:29</a>) encamped for the night. In the slightly altered form melunah, the same word is used of a nightwatchman\'s lodge in a garden (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',1,8);">Isa 1:8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',24,20);">24:20</a>, the King James Version "cottage"). The word in itself does not imply the presence of any building, and in the case of caravans and travelers was doubtless originally, as very often at the present day, only a convenient level bit of ground near some spring, where baggage might be unloaded, animals watered and tethered, and men rest on the bare ground. Nothing in the Old Testament suggests the occupancy of a house in such cases. The nearest approach to such an idea occurs in <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',41,17);">Jer 41:17</a> margin, where geruth kimham is translated "the lodging-place of Chimham," but the text is very doubtful and probably refers rather to sheepfolds. We cannot say when buildings were first used, but the need of shelter for caravans traveling in winter, and of protection in dangerous times and districts, would lead to their introduction at an early period in the history of trade.<P>2. Public Inns:<P>It is noteworthy that all the indisputable designations of "inn" come in with the Greek period. Josephus (Ant., XV, v, 1; BJ, I, xxi, 7) speaks of "Public inns" under the name of katagogal, while in the Aramaic Jewish writings we meet with \'ushpiza\', from Latin hospitium, and \'akhcanya\' from the Greek xenia; the New Testament designation pandocheion has passed into the Aramaic pundheqa\' and the Arabic funduq. All these are used of public inns, and they all correspond to the modern "khan" or "caravanserai." These are to be found on the great trade routes all over the East. In their most elaborate form they have almost the strength of a fortress. They consist of a great quadrangle into which admission is gained through a broad, strong gateway. The quadrangle is enclosed on all sides by a 2-story building, the windows in the case of the lower story opening only to the interior. The upper story is reached by stairways, and has a gangway all around, giving access to the practically bare rooms which are at the disposal of travelers.<p>3. Their Evil Name:<P>There is usually a well of good water in the center of the quadrangle, and travelers as a rule bring their own food and often that of their animals (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',19,19);">Jud 19:19</a>) with them. There are no fixed payments, and on departure, the arranging of haqq el-khan generally means a disagreeable dispute, as the innkeepers are invariably untruthful, dishonest and oppressive. They have ever been regarded as of infamous character. The Roman laws in many places recognize this. In Mishna, Yebhamoth, xvi. 7 the word of an innkeeper was doubted, and Mishna, \'Abbodhah Zarah, ii.4 places them in the lowest scale of degradation. The New Testament is quite clear in speaking of "Rahab the harlot" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Hbr\',11,31);">Heb 11:31</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jam\',2,25);">Jas 2:25</a>). The Targum designates her an "innkeeper," while Rashi translates zonah as "a seller of kinds of food," a meaning the word will bear. Chimchi, however, accepts both meanings. This evil repute of public inns, together with the Semitic spirit of hospitality, led the Jews and the early Christians to prefer to recommend the keeping of open house for the entertainment of strangers. In the Jewish Morning Prayers, even in our day, such action is linked with great promises, and the New Testament repeatedly (<a onClick="return mV(\'Hbr\',13,2);">Heb 13:2</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Pe\',4,9);">1Pe 4:9</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'3Jo\',1,5);">3Joh 1:5</a>) commends hospitality. It is remarkable that both the Talmud (Shab 127a) and the New Testament (<a onClick="return mV(\'Hbr\',13,2);">Heb 13:2</a>) quote the same passage (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',18,3);">Ge 18:3</a>) in recommending it.<P>The best-known khans in Palestine are Khan Jubb-Yusuf, north of the Lake of Galilee, Khan et-Tujjar, under the shadow of Tabor, Khan el-Lubban (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',21,19);">Jud 21:19</a>), and Khan Chadrur, midway between Jerusalem and Jericho. This last certainly occupies the site of the inn referred to in <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',10,34);">Lu 10:34</a>, and it is not without interest that we read in Mishna, Yebhamoth, xvi.7, of another sick man being left at that same inn. See illustration, p. 64.<P>4. Guest Chambers:<P>The Greek word kataluma, though implying a "loosing" for the night, seems rather to be connected with the idea of hospitality in a private house than in a public inn. Luke with his usual care distinguishes between this and pandocheion, and his use of the verb kataluo (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',9,12);">Lu 9:12</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',19,7);">19:7</a>) makes his meaning clear. In the Septuagint, indeed, malon is sometimes translated kataluma, and it appears in <a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',9,22);">1Sa 9:22</a> for lishkah, the King James Version "parlour." It is the word used of the "upper room" where the Last Supper was held (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',14,14);">Mr 14:14</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',22,11);">Lu 22:11</a>, "guest-chamber"), and of the place of reception in Bethlehem where Joseph and Mary failed to find quarters (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',2,7);">Lu 2:7</a>). It thus corresponds to the spare or upper room in a private house or in a village, i.e. to the manzil adjoining the house of the sheikh, where travelers received hospitality and where no payment was expected, except a trifle to the caretaker. In Jerusalem such payments were made by leaving behind the earthenware vessels that had been used, and the skins of the animals that had been slaughtered (Yoma\' 12a).<P>5. Birth of Christ:<P>Judging from the word used, and the conditions implied, we are led to believe that Joseph and Mary had at first expected reception in the upper room or manzil at the house of the sheikh of Bethlehem, probably a friend and member of the house of David; that in this they were disappointed, and had to content themselves with the next best, the elevated platform alongside the interior of the stable, and on which those having the care of the animals generally slept. It being now the season when they were in the fields (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',2,8);">Lu 2:8</a>), the stable would be empty and clean. There then the Lord Jesus was born and laid in the safest and most convenient place, the nearest empty manger alongside of this elevated platform. Humble though the circumstances were, the family were preserved from all the annoyance and evil associations of a public khan, and all the demands of delicacy and privacy were duly met.``23';
isbe[4612]='Inner Man``<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=INWARD+MAN">INWARD MAN</a>`1';
isbe[4613]='Innocence; Innocency; Innocent`in\'-o-sens, in\'-o-sen-si, in\'-o-sent (zakhu, niqqayon, chinnam, chaph, naqi; athoos): the King James Version and the American Standard Revised Version have innocency in <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',20,5);">Ge 20:5</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',26,6);">Ps 26:6</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',73,13);">73:13</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Dan\',6,22);">Da 6:22</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Hsa\',8,5);">Ho 8:5</a>. In Daniel the Hebrew is zakhu, and the innocence expressed is the absence of the guilt of disloyalty to God. In all the other places the Hebrew is niqqayon, and the innocence expressed is the absence of pollution, Hosea having reference to the pollution of idolatry, and the other passages presenting the cleansing under the figure of washing hands. the King James Version has innocent not fewer than 40 times. In one place (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',2,31);">1Ki 2:31</a>) the Hebrew is chinnam, meaning "undeserved," or "without cause," and, accordingly, the American Standard Revised Version, instead of "innocent blood ...shed," has "blood ...shed without cause." In another place (<a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',33,9);">Job 33:9</a>) the Hebrew is chaph, meaning "scraped," or "polished," therefore "clean," and refers to moral purity. In all the other places the Hebrew is naqi, or its cognates, and the idea is doubtless the absence of pollution. In more than half the passages "innocent" is connected with blood, as "blood of the innocent," or simply "innocent blood." In some places there is the idea of the Divine acquittal, or forgiveness, as in <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',9,28);">Job 9:28</a>: "I know that thou wilt not hold me innocent" (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',10,14);">Job 10:14</a>, where the same Hebrew word is used). The New Testament has "innocent" twice in connection with blood<6F>"innocent blood," and "innocent of the blood" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',27,4,24);">Mt 27:4, 24</a>).``61';
isbe[4614]='Innocents, Massacre of the`in\'-o-sents, mas\'-a-ker,<P><b>I. MEANING AND HISTORY OF THE TERM</b><P><b>II. ANALYSIS OF NARRATIVE WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO MOTIVE</b><P class="in15">1. Focus of Narrative<76>Residence at Nazareth<P class="in15">2. Corollaries from Above Facts<P class="in15">3. Marks of Historicity<hr /><P>I. Meaning and History of the Term.<P>The conventional, ecclesiastical name given to the slaughter by <a href="study/isbe/search.html?string=HEROD">HEROD, I</a> (which see) of children two years old and under in Bethlehem and its environs at the time of the birth of Christ (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',2,16);">Mt 2:16</a>). The accepted title for this event may be traced through Augustine to Cyprian.<P>Irenaeus (died 202 AD) calls these children "martyrs," and in a very beautiful passage interprets the tragedy which ended their brief lives as a gracious and tender "sending before" into His kingdom by the Lord Himself.<P>Cyprian (died 258 AD) says: "That it might be manifest that they who are slain for Christ\'s sake are innocent, innocent infancy was put to death for his name\'s sake" (Ep. lv. 6).<P>Augustine (born 354 AD), following Cyprian, speaks of the children, formally, as "the Innocents" (Commentary on <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',43,5);">Ps 43:5</a>).<P>The ecclesiastical treatment of the incident is remarkable because of the exaggeration which was indulged in as to the extent of the massacre and the number of victims. At an early date the Greek church canonized 14,000, and afterward, by a curious misinterpretation of <a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',14,1,3);">Re 14:1, 3</a>, the number was increased to 144,000.<P>According to Milman the liturgy of the Church of England retains a reminiscence of this ancient error in the use of <a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',14,\'1-\');">Re 14</a> on Holy Innocents\' Day (see History of Christianity, I, 107, note e). This exaggeration, of which there is no hint in the New Testament, is worthy of note because the most serious general argument against the historicity of the narrative is drawn from the silence of Josephus. As in all probability there could not have been more than twenty children involved (compare Farrar, Life of Christ, I, 45, note), the incident could not have bulked very largely in the series of horrors perpetrated or planned by Herod in the last months of his life (see Farrar, The Herods, 144f).<P>II. Analysis of Narrative with Special Reference to Motive.<P>In estimating the value of such a narrative from the viewpoint of historicity, the first and most important step is to gauge the motive. Why was the story told? This question is not always easy to answer, but in the present instance there is a very simple and effective test at hand.<P>1. Focus of Narrative<76>Residence at Nazareth:<P>In Matthew\'s infancy section (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',1,\'1-\');">Mt 1</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',2,\'1-\');">2</A>) there are five quotations from the Old Testament which are set into the narrative of events. These five quotations represent the cardinal and outstanding points of interest. The quotations are placed thus:<P>(1) at the Virgin Birth (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',1,23);">Mt 1:23</a>);<P>(2) at the birth at Bethlehem (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',2,6);">Mt 2:6</a>);<P>(3) at the visit to Egypt (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',2,15);">Mt 2:15</a>);<P>(4) at the murder of the children (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',2,18);">Mt 2:18</a>);<P>(5) at the Nazareth residence (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',2,23);">Mt 2:23</a>).<P>It will be noticed at once as peculiar and significant that no quotation is attached to the visit of the Magi. This omission is the more noteworthy because in <a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',24,7);">Nu 24:7</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',72,15);">Ps 72:15</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',60,6);">Isa 60:6</a>, and numerous references to the ingathering of the Gentiles there are such beautiful and appropriate passages to link with the visit of the strangers from the Far East. This peculiar omission, on the part of a writer so deeply interested in prophecy and its fulfillment and so keen to seize upon appropriate and suggestive harmonies, in a section constructed with a view to such harmonies, can be explained only on the ground that the visit of the Magi did not, in the writer\'s view of events, occupy a critical point of especial interest. Their visit is told, not for its own sake, but because of its connection with the murder of the children and the journey to Egypt. The murder of the children is of interest because it discloses the character of Herod and the perils surrounding the newborn Messiah. It also explains the visit to Egypt and the subsequent residence at Nazareth. The latter is evidently the objective point, because it is given a place by itself and marked by a quotation. Moreover, the one evidence of overstrain in the narrative is in the ambiguous and obscure statement by which the Old Testament is brought into relationship with the Nazareth residence. The center of interest in the entire section which is concerned with Herod and the Magi is the Nazareth residence. The story is told for the express purpose of explaining why the heir of David, who was born at Bethlehem, lived at Nazareth.<P>This brings the narrative of Matthew into striking relationship with that of Luke. The latter\'s concern is to show how it was that the Messiah who lived at Nazareth was born at Bethlehem. We have here one of the undesigned unities which bind together these two narratives which are seemingly so divergent. That Matthew says nothing about a previous residence at Nazareth and that Luke says nothing about a forced return thither may be explained, in accordance with the balance of probabilities, on the ground, either that each evangelist was ignorant of the fact omitted by himself, or that in his condensed and rapid statement he did not see fit to mention it. In any case the harmony immeasurably outweighs the discrepancy.<P>2. Corollaries from Above Facts:<P>The fact that the focus of the entire narrative lies in the residence of Jesus at Nazareth effectually disposes of a number of current hypotheses as to its origin.<P>(1) The idea that it is merely legend told for the purpose of literary embellishment. The dovetailing of what would be the main item into the rest of the narrative and its subordination to secondary features cannot be explained on this hypothesis. The absence of adornment by available passages from the Old Testament alone is conclusive on this point (see Allen, "Matthew," ICC,14,15).<P>(2) The idea that the story is told for the purpose of illustrating the scope of the Messiah\'s influence beyond Israel. Here, again, the subordinate position assigned to the story of the Magi together with the absence of Old Testament material is conclusive. Moreover, the history of the Magi is abruptly dropped with the statement of their return home. Interest in them flags as soon as their brief connection with the movement of the history through Herod ceases. And the intensely Hebraic character of Matthew\'s infancy section as a whole is incidental evidence pointing in the same direction (compare remarks of the writer, Birth and Infancy of Jesus Christ, 70f).<P>(3) The idea that the story is told to emphasize the wonder-element in connection with the birth of Christ. The facts contradict this. In addition to the primary consideration, the subordinate position, there are others of great value. That the Magi were providentially guided to the feet of the Messiah is evidently the firm conviction of the narrator. The striking feature of the story is that with this belief in his mind he keeps so strictly within the limits of the natural order. In <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',2,9,12);">Mt 2:9 and 12</a> only is there apparent exception. Of these the statement in <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',2,9);">2:9</A> is the only one peculiar to this part of the narrative. Two things are to be remembered concerning it: It is clear that the verse cannot be interpreted apart from a clear understanding of the whole astronomical occurrence of which it forms a part.<P>It is also evident that <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',2,9);">Mt 2:9</a> must not be interpreted apart from the context. From the viewpoint of a wonder-tale the writer makes a fatal blunder at the most critical point of his story. The popular notion that the Magi were miraculously led to the Messiah finds no support in the text. The Magi did not come to Bethlehem, but to Jerusalem, asking: "Where is he that is born King of the Jews?" <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',2,9);">Mt 2:9</a> comes after this statement and after the conclave called by Herod in which Bethlehem was specified. In view of all this it seems clear that the Magi were led, not miraculously, but in accordance with the genius of their own system, and that the Providential element lay in the striking coincidence of their visit and the birth of Jesus. The interest of the writer was not in the wonder-element, else, infallibly, he would have sharpened its outlines and expurgated all ambiguity as to the nature of the occurrence.<P>We may now glance at the positive evidence for the historicity of the event.<P>3. Marks of Historicity:<P>(1) The centering of the narrative upon the residence of Jesus at Nazareth. This not only brings Luke\'s Gospel in support of the center, but groups the story around a point of known interest to the first generation of believers. It is interesting to note that the residence in Egypt has independent backing of a sort. There are in existence two stories, one traced by Origen through Jews of his own day to earlier times, and the other in the Talmud, which connect Jesus with Egypt and attempt to account for His miracles by reference to Egyptian magic (see Plummer, "Matthew," Ex. Comm., 17,18).<P>(2) The fact that the story of the Magi is told so objectively and with such personal detachment. Both Jews and early Christians had strong views both as to astrology and magic in general (see Plummer, op. cit., 15), but the author of this Gospel tells the story without emphasis and without comment and from the viewpoint of the Magi. His interest is purely historical and matter-of-fact.<P>(3) The portrait of Herod the Great. So far as Herod is concerned the incident is usually discussed with exclusive reference to the savagery involved. By many it is affirmed that we have here a hostile and unfair portrait. This contention could hardly be sustained even if the question turned entirely upon the point of savagery. But there is far more than savagery in the incident.<P>(a) In the first place there is this undeniable element of inherent probability in the story. Practically all of Herod\'s murders, including those of his beloved wife and his sons, were perpetrated under the sway of one emotion and in obedience to a single motive. They were in practically every instance for the purpose of consolidating or perpetuating his power. He nearly destroyed his own immediate family in the half-mad jealousy that on occasion drove him to the very limits of ferocity, simply because they were accused of plotting against him. The accusations were largely false, but the suspicion doomed those accused. The murder of the Innocents was another crime of the same sort. The old king was obsessed by the fear of a claimant to his petty throne; the Messianic hope of the Jews was a perpetual secret torment, and the murder of the children, in the attempt to reach the child whose advent threatened him, was at once so original in method and so characteristic in purpose as to give an inimitable veri-similitude to the whole narrative. There are also other traits of truth.<P>(b) Herod\'s prompt discovery of the visit of the Magi and their questions is in harmony with what we know of the old ruler\'s watchfulness and his elaborate system of espionage.<P>(c) Characteristic also is the subtlety with which he deals with the whole situation. How striking and vivid, with all its rugged simplicity, is the story of the king\'s pretended interest in the quest of the strangers, the solemn conclave of Jewish leaders with himself in the role of earnest inquirer, his urgent request for information that he may worship also, followed by his swift anger (note that ethumothe, "was wroth," verse <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',2,16);">16</a>, is not used elsewhere in the New Testament) at being deceived, and the blind but terrible stroke of his questing vengeance.<P>All these items are so true to the man, to the atmosphere which always surrounded him, and to the historic situation, that we are forced to conclude, either that we have veracious history more or less directly received from one who was an observer of the events described, or the work of an incomparably clever romancer.``169';
isbe[4615]='Inordinate`in-or\'-di-nat ("ill-regulated," hence, "immoderate," "excessive"; Latin in, "not," ordinatus, "set in order"): Only twice in the King James Version. In each case there is no corresponding adjective in the original, but the word was inserted by the translators as being implied in the noun. It disappears in Revised Version: <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',23,11);">Eze 23:11</a>, "in her inordinate love" (the Revised Version (British and American) "in her doting"); aghabhah, "lust"; <a onClick="return mV(\'Col\',3,5);">Col 3:5</a> "inordinate affection" (the Revised Version (British and American) "passion"); pathos, a word which in classical Greek may have either a good or a bad sense (any affection or emotion of the mind), but in the New Testament is used only in a bad sense (passion).``49';
isbe[4616]='Inquire`in-kwir\' (sha\'al, "to ask," "desire"; zeteo, "to seek"); A form sometimes employed with reference to the practice of divination, as where Saul "inquires of" (or "consults") the witch of Endor as to the issue of the coming battle (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',28,6,7);">1Sa 28:6-7</a>) (see <a href="study/isbe/search.html?string=DIVINATION">DIVINATION</A>).<P>In <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',10,6);">Job 10:6</a>, "to inquire (baqash) after iniquity" signifies to bring to light and punish for it, and Job asks distractedly if God\'s time is so short that He is in a hurry to find him guilty and to punish him as if He had only a man\'s few days to live.<P>"To inquire of Yahweh" denotes the consultation of oracle, priest, prophet or Yahweh Himself, as to a certain course of action or as to necessary supplies. (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',20,27);">Jud 20:27</a> the King James Version, "to ask"; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',22,5);">1Ki 22:5</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',9,9);">1Sa 9:9</a> (darash); <a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',10,22);">1Sa 10:22</a> the King James Version; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',2,1);">2Sa 2:1</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',5,19,23);">5:19, 23</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',36,37);">Eze 36:37</a>).<P>"To inquire (baqar) in his temple" (palace) means to find out all that constant fellowship or unbroken intercourse with God can teach (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',27,4);">Ps 27:4</a>).<P><a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',20,25);">Pr 20:25</a> warns against rashness in making a vow and afterward considering (baqar, "to make inquiry") as to whether it can be fulfilled or how it may be eluded.<P>In the King James Version, the translation of several Greek words: diaginosko, "to know thoroughly" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',23,15);">Ac 23:15</a>); epizeteo, "to seek after" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',19,39);">Ac 19:39</a>); suzeteo, "to seek together" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',22,23);">Lu 22:23</a>); exetazo, "to search out" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',10,11);">Mt 10:11</a>).``91';
isbe[4617]='Inquisition`in-kwi-zish\'-un (darash, "to follow," "diligently inquire," "question," "search" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',19,18);">De 19:18</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',9,12);">Ps 9:12</a>), baqash, "to search out," "to strive after," "inquire" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Est\',2,23);">Es 2:23</a>)): The term refers, as indicated by these passages, first of all to a careful and diligent inquiry necessary to ascertain the truth from witnesses in a court, but may also refer to a careful examination into circumstances or conditions without official authority.``1';
isbe[4618]='Inscription`in-skrip\'-shun (verb epigrapho, "to write upon," "inscribe"): The word occurs once in English Versions of the Bible in <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',17,23);">Ac 17:23</a> of the altar at Athens with the inscription "To an Unknown God."`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ARCHAEOLOGY;+ARCHAEOLOGY+AND+CRITICISM">ARCHAEOLOGY</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ASSYRIA">ASSYRIA</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=BABYLONIA">BABYLONIA</a>`1';
isbe[4619]='Insects`in\'-sekts: In English Versions of the Bible, including the marginal notes, we find at least 23 names of insects or words referring to them: ant, bald locust, bee, beetle, cankerworm, caterpillar, creeping thing, cricket, crimson, flea, fly, gnat, grasshopper, honey, hornet, locust, louse, (lice), moth, palmer-worm, sandfly, scarlet-worm, silk-worm. These can be referred to about 12 insects, which, arranged systematically, are: Hymenoptera, ant, bee, hornet; Lepidoptera, clothes-moth, silk-worm; Siphonaptera, flea; Diptera, fly; Rhynchota, louse, scarletworm; Orthoptera, several kinds of grasshoppers and locusts.<P>The word "worm" refers not only to the scarletworm, but to various larvae of Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, and Diptera. "Creeping things" refers indefinitely to insects, reptiles, and beasts. In the list of 23 names given above honey and bee refer to one insect, as do crimson and scarlet. Sandfly has no place if "lice" be retained in <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',8,16);">Ex 8:16</a>ff. Bald locust, beetle, canker-worm, cricket, and palmerworm probably all denote various kinds of grasshoppers and locusts. When the translators of English Versions of the Bible had to do with two or more Hebrew words for which there was only one well-recognized English equivalent, they seem to have been content with that alone, if the two Hebrew words occurred in different passages; e.g. zebhubh, "fly" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',10,1);">Ec 10:1</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',7,18);">Isa 7:18</a>), and \'arobh, "fly" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',8,21);">Ex 8:21</a>). On the other hand, they were put to it to find equivalents for the insect names in <a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',11,22);">Le 11:22</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Joe\',1,4);">Joe 1:4</a>, and elsewhere. For cale\'am (<a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',11,22);">Le 11:22</a>) they evidently coined "bald locust," following a statement of the Talmud that it had a smooth head. For gazam and yeleq they imported "palmer-worm" and "canker-worm," two old English names of caterpillars, using "caterpillar" for chasil. The King James Version "beetle" for chargol is absolutely inappropriate, and the Revised Version (British and American) "cricket," while less objectionable, is probably also incorrect. The English language seems to lack appropriate names for different kinds of grasshoppers and locusts, and it is difficult to suggest any names to take the places of those against which these criticisms are directed. See under the names of the respective insects. See also <a href="study/isbe/search.html?string=SCORPION">SCORPION</A> and <a href="study/isbe/search.html?string=SPIDER">SPIDER</a>, which are not included here because they are not strictly insects.``37';
isbe[4620]='Inspiration, 1-7`in-spi-ra\'-shun:<P>1. Meaning of Terms<P>2. Occurrences in the Bible<P>3. Consideration of Important Passages<P class="in15">(1) <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ti\',3,16);">2 Timothy 3:16</a><P class="in15">(2) <a onClick="return mV(\'2Pe\',1,\'19-21\');">2 Peter 1:19-21</a><P class="in15">(3) <a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',10,34);">John 10:34</a> f<P>4. Christ\'s Declaration That Scripture Must Be Fulfilled<P>5. His Testimony That God Is Author of Scripture<P>6. Similar Testimony of His Immediate Followers<P>7. Their Identification of God and Scripture<P>8. The "Oracles of God"<P>9. The Human Element in Scripture<P>10. Activities of God in Giving Scripture<P>11. General Problem of Origin: God\'s Part<P>12. How Human Qualities Affected Scripture. Providential Preparation<P>13. "Inspiration" More than Mere "Providence"<P>14. Witness of New Testament Writers to Divine Operation<P>15. "Inspiration" and "Revelation"<P>16. Scriptures a Divine-Human Book?<P>17. Scripture of the New Testament Writers Was the Old Testament<P>18. Inclusion of the New Testament<P>LITERATURE<hr /><P>1. Meaning of Terms:<P>The word "inspire" and its derivatives seem to have come into Middle English from the French, and have been employed from the first (early in the 14th century) in a considerable number of significations, physical and metaphorical, secular and religious. The derivatives have been multiplied and their applications extended during the procession of the years, until they have acquired a very wide and varied use. Underlying all their use, however, is the constant implication of an influence from without, producing in its object movements and effects beyond its native, or at least its ordinary powers. The noun "inspiration," although already in use in the 14th century, seems not to occur in any but a theological sense until late in the 16th century. The specifically theological sense of all these terms is governed, of course, by their usage in Latin theology; and this rests ultimately on their employment in the Latin Bible. In the Vulgate (Jerome\'s Latin Bible, 390-405 A.D.) Latin Bible the verb inspiro (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',2,7);">Ge 2:7</a>; <span class="noTag">The Wisdom of Solomon 15:11</span>; Ecclesiasticus 4:12; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ti\',3,16);">2Ti 3:16</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Pe\',1,21);">2Pe 1:21</a>) and the noun inspiratio (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',22,16);">2Sa 22:16</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',32,8);">Job 32:8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',18,15);">Ps 18:15</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',17,25);">Ac 17:25</a>) both occur 4 or 5 times in somewhat diverse applications. In the development of a theological nomenclature, however, they have acquired (along with other less frequent applications) a technical sense with reference to the Biblical writers or the Biblical books. The Biblical books are called inspired as the Divinely determined products of inspired men; the Biblical writers are called inspired as breathed into by the Holy Spirit, so that the product of their activities transcends human powers and becomes Divinely authoritative. Inspiration is, therefore, usually defined as a supernatural influence exerted on the sacred writers by the Spirit of God, by virtue of which their writings are given Divine trustworthiness.<P>2. Occurrences in the Bible:<P>Meanwhile, for English-speaking men, these terms have virtually ceased to be Biblical terms. They naturally passed from the Latin Vulgate (Jerome\'s Latin Bible, 390-405 A.D.) into the English versions made from it (most fully into the Rheims-Douay: <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',32,8);">Job 32:8</a>; <span class="noTag">The <span class="noTag">Wisdom of Solomon 15:11</span>; Ecclesiasticus 4:12</span>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ti\',3,16);">2Ti 3:16</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Pe\',1,21);">2Pe 1:21</a>). But in the development of the English Bible they have found ever-decreasing place. In the English Versions of the Bible of the Apocrypha (both the King James Version and the Revised Version (British and American)) "inspired" is retained in <span class="noTag">The <span class="noTag">Wisdom of Solomon 15:11</span>; but in the canonical books the nominal form alone occurs in the King James Version and that only twice: <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',32,8);">Job 32:8</a>, "But there is a spirit in man: and the inspiration of the Almighty giveth them understanding"; and <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ti\',3,16);">2Ti 3:16</a>, "All scripture is given by inspiration of God, and is profitable for doctrine, for reproof, for correction, for instruction in righteousness." the Revised Version (British and American) removes the former of these instances, substituting "breath" for "inspiration"; and alters the latter so as to read: "Every scripture inspired of God is also profitable for teaching, for reproof, for correction, for instruction which is in righteousness," with a marginal alternative in the form of, "Every scripture is inspired of God and profitable," etc. The word "inspiration" thus disappears from the English Bible, and the word "inspired" is left in it only once, and then, let it be added, by a distinct and even misleading mistranslation.<P>For the Greek word in this passage<67>theopneustos<6F>very distinctly does not mean "inspired of God." This phrase is rather the rendering of the Latin, divinitus inspirata, restored from the Wycliff ("Al Scripture of God ynspyrid is ....") and Rhemish ("All Scripture inspired of God is ....") versions of the Vulgate (Jerome\'s Latin Bible, 390-405 A.D.) The Greek word does not even mean, as the King James Version translates it, "given by inspiration of God," although that rendering (inherited from, Tyndale: "All Scripture given by inspiration of God is ...." and its successors; compare Geneva: "The whole Scripture is given by inspiration of God and is ....") has at least to say for itself that it is a somewhat clumsy, perhaps, but not misleading, paraphrase of the Greek term in theological language of the day. The Greek term has, however, nothing to say of inspiring or of inspiration: it speaks only of a "spiring" or "spiration." What it says of Scripture is, not that it is "breathed into by God" or is the product of the Divine "inbreathing" into its human authors, but that it is breathed out by God, "God-breathed," the product of the creative breath of God. In a word, what is declared by this fundamental passage is simply that the Scriptures are a Divine product, without any indication of how God has operated in producing them. No term could have been chosen, however, which would have more emphatically asserted the Divine production of Scripture than that which is here employed. The "breath of God" is in Scripture just the symbol of His almighty power, the bearer of His creative word. "By the word of Yahweh," we read in the significant parallel of <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',33,6);">Ps 33:6</a> "were the heavens made, and all the host of them by the breath of his mouth." And it is particularly where the operations of God are energetic that this term (whether ruach, or neshamah) is employed to designate them<65>God\'s breath is the irresistible outflow of His power. When Paul declares, then, that "every scripture" or "all scripture" is the product of the Divine breath, "is God-breathed," he asserts with as much energy as he could employ that Scripture is the product of a specifically Divine operation.<P>3. Consideration of Important Passages:<P>(1) <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ti\',3,16);">2 Timothy 3:16</a>:<P>In the passage in which Paul makes this energetic assertion of the Divine origin of Scripture he is engaged in explaining the greatness of the advantages which Timothy had enjoyed for learning the saving truth of God. He had had good teachers; and from his very infancy he had been, by his knowledge of the Scriptures, made wise unto salvation through faith in Jesus Christ. The expression, "sacred writings," here employed (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ti\',3,15);">1Ti 3:15</a>), is a technical one, not found elsewhere in the New Testament, it is true, but occurring currently in Philo and Josephus to designate that body of authoritative books which constituted the Jewish "Law." It appears here anarthrously because it is set in contrast with the oral teaching which Timothy had enjoyed, as something still better: he had not only had good instructors, but also always "an open Bible," as we should say, in his hand. To enhance yet further the great advantage of the possession of these Sacred Scriptures the apostle adds now a sentence throwing their nature strongly up to view. They are of Divine origin and therefore of the highest value for all holy purposes.<P>There is room for some difference of opinion as to the exact construction of this declaration. Shall we render "Every Scripture" or "All Scripture"? Shall we render "Every (or all) Scripture is God-breathed and (therefore) profitable," or "Every (or all) Scripture, being God-breathed, is as well profitable"? No doubt both questions are interesting, but for the main matter now engaging our attention they are both indifferent. Whether Paul, looking back at the Sacred Scriptures he had just mentioned, makes the assertion he is about to add, of them distributively, of all their parts, or collectively, of their entire mass, is of no moment: to say that every part of these Sacred Scriptures is God-breathed and to say that the whole of these Sacred Scriptures is God-breathed, is, for the main matter, all one. Nor is the difference great between saying that they are in all their parts, or in their whole extent, God-breathed and therefore profitable, and saying that they are in all their parts, or in their whole extent, because God-breathed as well profitable. In both cases these Sacred Scriptures are declared to owe their value to their Divine origin; and in both cases this their Divine origin is energetically asserted of their entire fabric. On the whole, the preferable construction would seem to be, "Every Scripture, seeing that it is God-breathed, is as well profitable." In that case, what the apostle asserts is that the Sacred Scriptures, in their every several passage<67>for it is just "passage of Scripture" which "Scripture" in this distributive use of it signifies<65>is the product of the creative breath of God, and, because of this its Divine origination, is of supreme value for all holy purposes.<P>It is to be observed that the apostle does not stop here to tell us either what particular books enter into the collection which he calls Sacred Scriptures, or by what precise operations God has produced them. Neither of these subjects entered into the matter he had at the moment in hand. It was the value of the Scriptures, and the source of that value in their Divine origin, which he required at the moment to assert; and these things he asserts, leaving to other occasions any further facts concerning them which it might be well to emphasize. It is also to be observed that the apostle does not tell us here everything for which the Scriptures are made valuable by their Divine origination. He speaks simply to the point immediately in hand, and reminds Timothy of the value which these Scriptures, by virtue of their Divine origin, have for the "man of God." Their spiritual power, as God-breathed, is all that he had occasion here to advert to. Whatever other qualities may accrue to them from their Divine origin, he leaves to other occasions to speak of.<P>(2) <a onClick="return mV(\'2Pe\',1,\'19-21\');">2 Peter 1:19-21</a>:<P>What Paul tells us here about the Divine origin of the Scriptures is enforced and extended by a striking passage in 2 Peter (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Pe\',1,\'19-21\');">1:19-21</a>). Peter is assuring his readers that what had been made known to them of "the power and coming of our Lord Jesus Christ" did not rest on "cunningly devised fables." He offers them the testimony of eyewitnesses of Christ\'s glory. And then he intimates that they have better testimony than even that of eyewitnesses. "We have," says he, "the prophetic word" (English Versions of the Bible, unhappily, "the word of prophecy"): and this, he says, is "more sure," and therefore should certainly be heeded. He refers, of course, to the Scriptures. Of what other "prophetic word" could he, over against the testimony of the eyewitnesses of Christ\'s "excellent glory" (the King James Version) say that "we have" it, that is, it is in our hands? And he proceeds at once to speak of it plainly as "Scriptural prophecy." You do well, he says, to pay heed to the prophetic word, because we know this first, that "every prophecy of scripture ...." It admits of more question, however, whether by this phrase he means the whole of Scripture, designated according to its character, as prophetic, that is, of Divine origin; or only that portion of Scripture which we discriminate as particularly prophetic, the immediate revelations contained in Scripture. The former is the more likely view, inasmuch as the entirety of Scripture is elsewhere conceived and spoken of as prophetic. In that case, what Peter has to say of this "every prophecy of scripture"<22>the exact equivalent, it will be observed, in this case of Paul\'s "every scripture" (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ti\',3,16);">2Ti 3:16</a>)<29>applies to the whole of Scripture in all its parts. What he says of it is that it does not come "of private interpretation"; that is, it is not the result of human investigation into the nature of things, the product of its writers\' own thinking. This is as much as to say it is of Divine gift. Accordingly, he proceeds at once to make this plain in a supporting clause which contains both the negative and the positive declaration: "For no prophecy ever came (margin: "was brought") by the will of man, but it was as borne by the Holy Spirit that men spoke from God." In this singularly precise and pregnant statement there are several things which require to be carefully observed. There is, first of all, the emphatic denial that prophecy<63>that is to say, on the hypothesis upon which we are working, Scripture<72>owes its origin to human initiative: "No prophecy ever was brought<68>\'came\' is the word used in the English Versions of the Bible text, with \'was brought\' in the Revised Version margin<69>by the will of man." Then, there is the equally emphatic assertion that its source lies in God: it was spoken by men, indeed, but the men who spoke it "spake from God." And a remarkable clause is here inserted, and thrown forward in the sentence that stress may fall on it, which tells us how it could be that men, in speaking, should speak not from themselves, but from God: it was "as borne"<22>it is the same word which was rendered "was brought" above, and might possibly be rendered "brought" here<72>"by the Holy Spirit" that they spoke. Speaking thus under the determining influence of the Holy Spirit, the things they spoke were not from themselves, but from God.<P>Here is as direct an assertion of the Divine origin of Scripture as that of <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ti\',3,16);">2Ti 3:16</a>. But there is more here than a simple assertion of the Divine origin of Scripture. We are advanced somewhat in our understanding of how God has produced the Scriptures. It was through the instrumentality of men who "spake from him." More specifically, it was through an operation of the Holy Ghost on these men which is described as "bearing" them. The term here used is a very specific one. It is not to be confounded with guiding, or directing, or controlling, or even-leading in the full sense of that word. It goes beyond all such terms, in assigning the effect produced specifically to the active agent. What is "borne" is taken up by the "bearer," and conveyed by the "bearer\'s" power, not its own, to the "bearer\'s" goal, not its own. The men who spoke from God are here declared, therefore, to have been taken up by the Holy Spirit and brought by His power to the goal of His choosing. The things which they spoke under this operation of the Spirit were therefore His things, not theirs. And that is the reason which is assigned why "the prophetic word" is so sure. Though spoken through the instrumentality of men, it is, by virtue of the fact that these men spoke "as borne by the Holy Spirit," an immediately Divine word. It will be observed that the proximate stress is laid here, not on the spiritual value of Scripture (though that, too, is seen in the background), but on the Divine trustworthiness of Scripture. Because this is the way every prophecy of Scripture "has been brought," it affords a more sure basis of confidence than even the testimony of human eyewitnesses. Of course, if we do not understand by "the prophetic word" here the entirety of Scripture described, according to its character, as revelation, but only that element in Scripture which we call specifically prophecy, then it is directly only of that element in Scripture that these great declarations are made. In any event, however, they are made of the prophetic element in Scripture as written, which was the only form in which the readers of this Epistle possessed it, and which is the thing specifically intimated in the phrase "every prophecy of scripture." These great declarations are made, therefore, at least of large tracts of Scripture; and if the entirety of Scripture is intended by the phrase "the prophetic word," they are made of the whole of Scripture.<P>(3) <a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',10,34);">John 10:34</a> f:<P>How far the supreme trustworthiness of Scripture, thus asserted, extends may be conveyed to us by a passage in one of our Lord\'s discourses recorded by John (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',10,\'34-35\');">Joh 10:34-35</a>). The Jews, offended by Jesus\' "making himself God," were in the act to stone Him, when He defended Himself thus: "Is it not written in your law, I said, Ye are gods? If he called them gods, unto whom the word of God came (and the Scripture cannot be broken), say ye of him, whom the Father sanctified (margin "consecrated") and sent unto the world, Thou blasphemest; because I said, I am the Son of God?" It may be thought that this defense is inadequate. It certainly is incomplete: Jesus made Himself God (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',10,33);">Joh 10:33</a>) in a far higher sense than that in which "Ye are gods" was said of those "unto whom the word of God came": He had just declared in unmistakable terms, "I and the Father are one." But it was quite sufficient for the immediate end in view<65>to repel the technical charge of blasphemy based on His making Himself God: it is not blasphemy to call one God in any sense in which he may fitly receive that designation; and certainly if it is not blasphemy to call such men as those spoken of in the passage of Scripture adduced gods, because of their official functions, it cannot be blasphemy to call Him God whom the Father consecrated and sent into the world. The point for us to note, however, is merely that Jesus\' defense takes the form of an appeal to Scripture; and it is important to observe how He makes this appeal. In the first place, He adduces the Scriptures as law: "Is it not written in your law?" He demands. The passage of Scripture which He adduces is not written in that portion of Scripture which was more specifically called "the Law," that is to say, the Pentateuch; nor in any portion of Scripture of formally legal contents. It is written in the Book of Psalms; and in a particular psalm which is as far as possible from presenting the external characteristics of legal enactment (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',82,6);">Ps 82:6</a>). When Jesus adduces this passage, then, as written in the "law" of the Jews, He does it, not because it stands in this psalm, but because it is a part of Scripture at large. In other words, He here ascribes legal authority to the entirety of Scripture, in accordance with a conception common enough among the Jews (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',12,34);">Joh 12:34</a>), and finding expression in the New Testament occasionally, both on the lips of Jesus Himself, and in the writings of the apostles. Thus, on a later occasion (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',15,25);">Joh 15:25</a>), Jesus declares that it is written in the "law" of the Jews, "They hated me without a cause," a clause found in <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',35,19);">Ps 35:19</a>. And Paul assigns passages both from the Psalms and from Isaiah to "the Law" (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',14,21);">1Co 14:21</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',3,19);">Ro 3:19</a>), and can write such a sentence as this (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gal\',4,21);">Ga 4:21</a>f): "Tell me, ye that desire to be under the law, do ye not hear the law? For it is written ...." quoting from the narrative of Genesis. We have seen that the entirety of Scripture was conceived as "prophecy"; we now see that the entirety of Scripture was also conceived as "law": these three terms, the law, prophecy, Scripture, were indeed, materially, strict synonyms, as our present passage itself advises us, by varying the formula of adduction in contiguous verses from "law" to "scripture." And what is thus implied in the manner in which Scripture is adduced, is immediately afterward spoken out in the most explicit language, because it forms an essential element in Our Lord\'s defense. It might have been enough to say simply, "Is it not written in your law?" But our Lord, determined to drive His appeal to Scripture home, sharpens the point to the utmost by adding with the highest emphasis: "and the scripture cannot be broken." This is the reason why it is worth while to appeal to what is "written in the law," because "the scripture cannot be broken." The word "broken" here is the common one for breaking the law, or the Sabbath, or the like (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',5,18);">Joh 5:18</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',7,23);">7:23</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',5,19);">Mt 5:19</a>), and the meaning of the declaration is that it is impossible for the Scripture to be annulled, its authority to be withstood, or denied. The movement of thought is to the effect that, because it is impossible for the Scripture<72>the term is perfectly general and witnesses to the unitary character of Scripture (it is all, for the purpose in hand, of a piece)<29>to be withstood, therefore this particular Scripture which is cited must be taken as of irrefragable authority. What we have here is, therefore, the strongest possible assertion of the indefectible authority of Scripture; precisely what is true of Scripture is that it "cannot be broken." Now, what is the particular thing in Scripture, for the confirmation of which the indefectible authority of Scripture is thus invoked? It is one of its most casual clauses<65>more than that, the very form of its expression in one of its most casual clauses. This means, of course, that in the Savior\'s view the indefectible authority of Scripture attaches to the very form of expression of its most casual clauses. It belongs to Scripture through and through, down to its most minute particulars, that it is of indefectible authority.<P>It is sometimes suggested, it is true, that our Lord\'s argument here is an argumentum ad hominem, and that His words, therefore, express not His own view of the authority of Scripture, but that of His Jewish opponents. It will scarcely be denied that there is a vein of satire running through our Lord\'s defense: that the Jews so readily allowed that corrupt judges might properly be called "gods," but could not endure that He whom the Father had consecrated and sent into the world should call Himself Son of God, was a somewhat pungent fact to throw up into such a high light. But the argument from Scripture is not ad hominem but e concessu; Scripture was common ground with Jesus and His opponents. If proof were needed for so obvious a fact, it would be supplied by the circumstance that this is not an isolated but a representative passage. The conception of Scripture thrown up into such clear view here supplies the ground of all Jesus\' appeals to Scripture, and of all the appeals of the New Testament writers as well. Everywhere, to Him and to them alike, an appeal to Scripture is an appeal to an indefectible authority whose determination is final; both He and they make their appeal indifferently to every part of Scripture, to every element in Scripture, to its most incidental clauses as well as to its most fundamental principles, and to the very form of its expression. This attitude toward Scripture as an authoritative document is, indeed, already intimated by their constant designation of it by the name of Scripture, the Scriptures, that is "the Document," by way of eminence; and by their customary citation of it with the simple formula, "It is written." What is written in this document admits so little of questioning that its authoritativeness required no asserting, but might safely be taken for granted. Both modes of expression belong to the constantly illustrated habitudes of our Lord\'s speech. The first words He is recorded as uttering after His manifestation to Israel were an appeal to the unquestionable authority of Scripture; to Satan\'s temptations He opposed no other weapon than the final "It is written"! (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',4,4,7,10);">Mt 4:4, 7, 10</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',4,4,8);">Lu 4:4, 8</a>). And among the last words which He spoke to His disciples before He was received up was a rebuke to them for not understanding that all things "which are written in the law of Moses, and the prophets, and psalms" concerning Him<69>that is (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',24,45);">Lu 24:45</a>) in the entire "Scriptures"<22>"must needs be" (very emphatic) "fulfilled" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',24,44);">Lu 24:44</a>). "Thus it is written," says He (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',24,46);">Lu 24:46</a>), as rendering all doubt absurd. For, as He had explained earlier upon the same day (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',24,25);">Lu 24:25</a>), it argues only that one is "foolish and slow of heart" if he does not "believe in" (if his faith does not rest securely on, as on a firm foundation) "all" (without limit of subject-matter here) "that the prophets" (explained in <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',24,27);">Lu 24:27</a> as equivalent to "all the scriptures") "have spoken."<P>4. Christ\'s Declaration That Scripture Must Be Fulfilled:<P>The necessity of the fulfillment of all that is written in Scripture, which is so strongly asserted in these last instructions to His disciples, is frequently adverted to by our Lord. He repeatedly explains of occurrences occasionally happening that they have come to pass "that the scripture might be fulfilled" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',14,49);">Mr 14:49</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',13,18);">Joh 13:18</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',17,12);">17:12</a>; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',12,14);">Joh 12:14</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',9,12,13);">Mr 9:12-13</a>). On the basis of Scriptural declarations, therefore, He announces with confidence that given events will certainly occur: "All ye shall be offended (literally, "scandalized") in me this night: for it is written ...."(<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',26,31);">Mt 26:31</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',14,27);">Mr 14:27</a>; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',20,17);">Lu 20:17</a>). Although holding at His command ample means of escape, He bows before on-coming calamities, for, He asks, how otherwise "should the scriptures be fulfilled, that thus it must be?" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',26,54);">Mt 26:54</a>). It is not merely the two disciples with whom He talked on the way to Emmaus (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',24,25);">Lu 24:25</a>) whom He rebukes for not trusting themselves more perfectly to the teaching of Scripture. "Ye search the scriptures," he says to the Jews, in the classical passage (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',5,39);">Joh 5:39</a>), "because ye think that in them ye have eternal life; and these are they which bear witness of me; and ye will not come to me, that ye may have life!" These words surely were spoken more in sorrow than in scorn: there is no blame implied either for searching the Scriptures or for thinking that eternal life is to be found in Scripture; approval rather. What the Jews are blamed for is that they read with a veil lying upon their hearts which He would fain take away (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',3,15);">2Co 3:15</a>f). "Ye search the scriptures"<22>that is right: and "even you" (emphatic) "think to have eternal life in them"<22>that is right, too. But "it is these very Scriptures" (very emphatic) "which are bearing witness" (continuous process) "of me; and" (here is the marvel!) "ye will not come to me and have life!"<22>that you may, that is, reach the very end you have so properly in view in searching the Scriptures. Their failure is due, not to the Scriptures but to themselves, who read the Scriptures to such little purpose.<P>5. His Testimony That God Is Author of Scripture:<P>Quite similarly our Lord often finds occasion to express wonder at the little effect to which Scripture had been read, not because it had been looked into too curiously, but because it had not been looked into earnestly enough, with sufficiently simple and robust trust in its every declaration. "Have ye not read even this scripture?" He demands, as He adduces <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',118,\'1-\');">Ps 118</a> to show that the rejection of the Messiah was already intimated in Scripture (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',12,10);">Mr 12:10</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',21,42);">Mt 21:42</a> varies the expression to the equivalent: "Did ye never read in the scriptures?"). And when the indignant Jews came to Him complaining of the Hosannas with which the children in the Temple were acclaiming Him, and demanding, "Hearest thou what these are saying?" He met them (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',21,16);">Mt 21:16</a>) merely with, "Yea: did ye never read, Out of the mouths of babes and sucklings thou has perfected praise?" The underlying thought of these passages is spoken out when He intimates that the source of all error in Divine things is just ignorance of the Scriptures: "Ye do err," He declares to His questioners, on an important occasion, "not knowing the scriptures" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',22,29);">Mt 22:29</a>); or, as it is put, perhaps more forcibly, in interrogative form, in its parallel in another Gospel: "Is it not for this cause that ye err, that ye know not the scriptures?" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',12,24);">Mr 12:24</a>). Clearly, he who rightly knows the Scriptures does not err. The confidence with which Jesus rested on Scripture, in its every declaration, is further illustrated in a passage like <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',19,4);">Mt 19:4</a>. Certain Pharisees had come to Him with a question on divorce and He met them thus: "Have ye not read, that he who made them from the beginning made them male and female, and said, For this cause shall a man leave his father and mother, and shall cleave to his wife; and the two shall become one flesh? ...What therefore God hath joined together, let not man put asunder." The point to be noted is the explicit reference of <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',2,24);">Ge 2:24</a> to God as its author: "He who made them ...said"; "what therefore God hath joined together." Yet this passage does not give us a saying of God\'s recorded in Scripture, but just the word of Scripture itself, and can be treated as a declaration of God\'s only on the hypothesis that all Scripture is a declaration of God\'s. The parallel in Mark (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',10,5);">10:5</a>ff) just as truly, though not as explicitly, assigns the passage to God as its author, citing it as authoritative law and speaking of its enactment as an act of God\'s. And it is interesting to observe in passing that Paul, having occasion to quote the same passage (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',6,16);">1Co 6:16</a>), also explicitly quotes it as a Divine word: "For, The twain, saith he, shall become one flesh"<22>the "he" here, in accordance with a usage to be noted later, meaning just "God."<P>Thus clear is it that Jesus\' occasional adduction of Scripture as an authoritative document rests on an ascription of it to God as its author. His testimony is that whatever stands written in Scripture is a word of God. Nor can we evacuate this testimony of its force on the plea that it represents Jesus only in the days of His flesh, when He may be supposed to have reflected merely the opinions of His day and generation. The view of Scripture He announces was, no doubt, the view of His day and generation as well as His own view. But there is no reason to doubt that it was held by Him, not because it was the current view, but because, in His Divine-human knowledge, He knew it to be true; for, even in His humiliation, He is the faithful and true witness. And in any event we should bear in mind that this was the view of the resurrected as well as of the humiliated Christ. It was after He had suffered and had risen again in the power of His Divine life that He pronounced those foolish and slow of heart who do not believe all that stands written in all the Scriptures (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',24,25);">Lu 24:25</a>); and that He laid down the simple "Thus it is written" as the sufficient ground of confident belief (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',24,46);">Lu 24:46</a>). Nor can we explain away Jesus\' testimony to the Divine trustworthiness of Scripture by interpreting it as not His own, but that of His followers, placed on His lips in their reports of His words. Not only is it too constant, minute, intimate and in part incidental, and therefore, as it were, hidden, to admit of this interpretation; but it so pervades all our channels of information concerning Jesus\' teaching as to make it certain that it comes actually from Him. It belongs not only to the Jesus of our evangelical records but as well to the Jesus of the earlier sources which underlie our evangelical records, as anyone may assure himself by observing the instances in which Jesus adduces the Scriptures as Divinely authoritative that are recorded in more than one of the Gospels (e.g. "It is written," <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',4,4,7,10);">Mt 4:4, 7, 10</a> (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',4,4,8,10);">Lu 4:4, 8, 10</a>); <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',11,10);">Mt 11:10</a>; (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',7,27);">Lu 7:27</a>); <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',21,13);">Mt 21:13</a> (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',19,46);">Lu 19:46</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',11,17);">Mr 11:17</a>); <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',26,31);">Mt 26:31</a> (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',14,21);">Mr 14:21</a>); "the scripture" or "the scriptures," <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',19,4);">Mt 19:4</a> (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',10,9);">Mr 10:9</a>); <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',21,42);">Mt 21:42</a> (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',12,10);">Mr 12:10</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',20,17);">Lu 20:17</a>); <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',22,29);">Mt 22:29</a> (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',12,24);">Mr 12:24</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',20,37);">Lu 20:37</a>); <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',26,56);">Mt 26:56</a> (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',14,49);">Mr 14:49</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',24,44);">Lu 24:44</a>)). These passages alone would suffice to make clear to us the testimony of Jesus to Scripture as in all its parts and declarations Divinely authoritative.<P>6. Similar Testimony of His Immediate Followers<P>The attempt to attribute the testimony of Jesus to His followers has in its favor only the undeniable fact that the testimony of the writers of the New Testament is to precisely the same effect as His. They, too, cursorily Apostles speak of Scripture by that pregnant name and adduce it with the simple "It is written," with the implication that whatever stands written in it is Divinely authoritative. As Jesus\' official life begins with this "It is written" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',4,4);">Mt 4:4</a>), so the evangelical proclamation begins with an "Even as it is written" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',1,2);">Mr 1:2</a>); and as Jesus sought the justification of His work in a solemn "Thus it is written, that the Christ should suffer, and rise again from the dead the third day" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',24,46);">Lu 24:46</a>), so the apostles solemnly justified the Gospel which they preached, detail after detail, by appeal to the Scriptures, "That Christ died for our sins according to the scriptures" and "That he hath been raised on the third day according to the scriptures" (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',15,3,4);">1Co 15:3-4</a>; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',8,35);">Ac 8:35</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',17,3);">17:3</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',26,22);">26:22</a>, and also <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',1,17);">Ro 1:17</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',3,4,10);">3:4, 10</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',4,17);">4:17</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',11,26);">11:26</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',14,11);">14:11</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',1,19);">1Co 1:19</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',2,9);">2:9</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',3,19);">3:19</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',15,45);">15:45</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Gal\',3,10,13);">Ga 3:10, 13</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Gal\',4,22,27);">4:22, 27</a>). Wherever they carried the gospel it was as a gospel resting on Scripture that they proclaimed it (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',17,2);">Ac 17:2</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',18,24,28);">18:24, 28</a>); and they encouraged themselves to test its truth by the Scriptures (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',17,11);">Ac 17:11</a>). The holiness of life they inculcated, they based on Scriptural requirement (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Pe\',1,16);">1Pe 1:16</a>), and they commended the royal law of love which they taught by Scriptural sanction (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jam\',2,8);">Jas 2:8</a>). Every detail of duty was supported by them by an appeal to Scripture (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',23,5);">Ac 23:5</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',12,19);">Ro 12:19</a>). The circumstances of their lives and the events occasionally occurring about them are referred to Scripture for their significance (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',2,26);">Ro 2:26</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',8,36);">8:36</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',9,33);">9:33</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',11,8);">11:8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',15,9,21);">15:9, 21</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',4,13);">2Co 4:13</a>). As our Lord declared that whatever was written in Scripture must needs be fulfilled (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',26,54);">Mt 26:54</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',22,37);">Lu 22:37</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',24,44);">24:44</a>), so His followers explained one of the most startling facts which had occurred in their experience by pointing out that "it was needful that the scripture should be fulfilled, which the Holy Spirit spake before by the mouth of David" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',1,16);">Ac 1:16</a>). Here the ground of this constant appeal to Scripture, so that it is enough that a thing "is contained in scripture" (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Pe\',2,6);">1Pe 2:6</a>) for it to be of indefectible authority, is plainly enough declared: Scripture must needs be fulfilled, for what is contained in it is the declaration of the Holy Ghost through the human author. What Scripture says, God says; and accordingly we read such remarkable declarations as these: "For the scripture saith unto Pharaoh, For this very purpose did I raise thee up" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',9,17);">Ro 9:17</a>); "And the scripture, foreseeing that God would justify the Gentiles by faith, preached the gospel beforehand unto Abraham, ...In thee shall all the nations be blessed" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gal\',3,8);">Ga 3:8</a>). These are not instances of simple personification of Scripture, which is itself a sufficiently remarkable usage (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',15,28);">Mr 15:28</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',7,38,42);">Joh 7:38, 42</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',19,37);">19:37</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',4,3);">Ro 4:3</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',10,11);">10:11</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',11,2);">11:2</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Gal\',4,30);">Ga 4:30</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ti\',5,18);">1Ti 5:18</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jam\',2,23);">Jas 2:23</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jam\',4,5);">4:5</a>f), vocal with the conviction expressed by James (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jam\',4,5);">4:5</A>) that Scripture cannot speak in vain. They indicate a certain confusion in current speech between "Scripture" and "God," the outgrowth of a deep-seated conviction that the word of Scripture is the word of God. It was not "Scripture" that spoke to Pharaoh, or gave his great promise to Abraham, but God. But "Scripture" and "God" lay so close together in the minds of the writers of the New Testament that they could naturally speak of "Scripture" doing what Scripture records God as doing. It was, however, even more natural to them to speak casually of God saying what the Scriptures say; and accordingly we meet with forms of speech such as these: "Wherefore, even as the Holy Spirit saith, Today if ye shall hear His voice," etc. (<a onClick="return mV(\'Hbr\',3,7);">Heb 3:7</a>, quoting <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',95,7);">Ps 95:7</a>); "Thou art God ...who by the mouth of thy servant David hast said, Why did the heathen rage," etc. (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',4,25);">Ac 4:25</a> the King James Version, quoting <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',2,1);">Ps 2:1</a>); "He that raised him from the dead ...hath spoken on this wise, I will give you ...because he saith also in another (place) ...."(<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',13,34);">Ac 13:34</a>, quoting <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',55,3);">Isa 55:3</a> and <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',16,10);">Ps 16:10</a>), and the like. The words put into God\'s mouth in each case are not words of God recorded in the Scriptures, but just Scripture words in themselves. When we take the two classes of passages together, in the one of which the Scriptures are spoken of as God, while in the other God is spoken of as if He were the Scriptures, we may perceive how close the identification of the two was in the minds of the writers of the New Testament.<P>7. Their Identification of God and Scripture:<P>This identification is strikingly observable in certain catenae of quotations, in which there are brought together a number of passages of Scripture closely connected with one another. The first chapter of the Epistle to the Hebrews supplies an example. We may begin with <a onClick="return mV(\'Hbr\',1,5);">Heb 1:5</a>:"for unto which of the angels said he"<22>the subject being necessarily "God"<22>"at any time, Thou art my Son, this day have I begotten thee?"<22>the citation being from <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',2,7);">Ps 2:7</a> and very appropriate in the mouth of God<6F>"and again, I will be to him a Father, and he shall be to me a Son?"<22>from <a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',7,14);">2Sa 7:14</a>, again a declaration of God\'s own<77>"And when he again bringeth in the firstborn into the world he saith, And let all the angels of God worship him"<22>from <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',32,43);">De 32:43</a>, Septuagint, or <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',97,7);">Ps 97:7</a>, in neither of which is God the speaker<65>"And of the angels he saith, Who maketh his angels winds, and his ministers a flame of fire"<22>from <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',104,4);">Ps 104:4</a>, where again God is not the speaker but is spoken of in the third person<6F>"but of the Son he saith, Thy throne, O God, etc."<22>from <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',45,6,7);">Ps 45:6-7</a> where again God is not the speaker, but is addressed<65>"And, Thou, Lord, in the beginning," etc.<2E>from <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',102,\'25-27\');">Ps 102:25-27</a>, where again God is not the speaker but is addressed<65>"But of which of the angels hath he said at any time, Sit thou on my right hand?" etc.<2E>from <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',110,1);">Ps 110:1</a>, in which God is the speaker. Here we have passages in which God is the speaker and passages in which God is not the speaker, but is addressed or spoken of, indiscriminately assigned to God, because they all have it in common that they are words of Scripture, and as words of Scripture are words of God. Similarly in <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',15,9);">Ro 15:9</a>ff we have a series of citations the first of which is introduced by "as it is written," and the next two by "again he saith," and "again," and the last by "and again, Isaiah saith," the first being from <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',18,49);">Ps 18:49</a>; the second from <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',32,43);">De 32:43</a>; the third from <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',117,1);">Ps 117:1</a>; and the last from <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',11,10);">Isa 11:10</a>. Only the last (the only one here assigned to the human author) is a word of God in the text of the Old Testament.``187';
isbe[4621]='Inspiration, 8-18`8. The "Oracles of God":<P>This view of the Scriptures as a compact mass of words of God occasioned the formation of a designation for them by which this their character was explicitly expressed. This designation is "the sacred oracles," "the oracles of God." It occurs with extraordinary frequency in Philo, who very commonly refers to Scripture as "the sacred oracles" and cites its several passages as each an "oracle." Sharing, as they do, Philo\'s conception of the Scriptures as, in all their parts, a word of God, the New Testament writers naturally also speak of them under this designation. The classical passage is <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',3,2);">Ro 3:2</a> (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Hbr\',5,12);">Heb 5:12</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',7,38);">Ac 7:38</a>). Here Paul begins an enumeration of the advantages which belonged to the chosen people above other nations; and, after declaring these advantages to have been great and numerous, he places first among them all their possession of the Scriptures: "What advantage then hath the Jew? or what is the profit of circumcision? Much every way: first of all, that they were entrusted with the oracles of God." That by "the oracles of God" here are meant just the Holy Scriptures in their entirety, conceived as a direct Divine revelation, and not any portions of them, or elements in them more especially thought of as revelatory, is perfectly clear from the wide contemporary use of this designation in this sense by Philo, and is put beyond question by the presence in the New Testament of habitudes of speech which rest on and grow out of the conception of Scripture embodied in this term. From the point of view of this designation, Scripture is thought of as the living voice of God speaking in all its parts directly to the reader; and, accordingly, it is cited by some such formula as "it is said," and this mode of citing Scripture duly occurs as an alternative to "it is written" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',4,12);">Lu 4:12</a> replacing "it is written" in Matthew; <a onClick="return mV(\'Hbr\',3,15);">Heb 3:15</a>; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',4,18);">Ro 4:18</a>). It is due also to this point of view that Scripture is cited, not as what God or the Holy Spirit "said," but what He "says," the present tense emphasizing the living voice of God speaking in Scriptures to the individual soul (<a onClick="return mV(\'Hbr\',3,7);">Heb 3:7</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',13,35);">Ac 13:35</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Hbr\',1,7,8,10);">Heb 1:7-8, 10</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',15,10);">Ro 15:10</a>). And especially there is due to it the peculiar usage by which Scripture is cited by the simple "saith, without expressed subject, the subject being too well understood, when Scripture is adduced, to require stating; for who could be the speaker of the words of Scripture but God only (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',15,10);">Ro 15:10</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',6,16);">1Co 6:16</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',6,2);">2Co 6:2</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Gal\',3,16);">Ga 3:16</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eph\',4,8);">Eph 4:8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eph\',5,14);">5:14</a>)? The analogies of this pregnant subjectless "saith" are very widespread. It was with it that the ancient Pythagoreans and Platonists and the medieval Aristotelians adduced each their master\'s teaching; it was with it that, in certain circles, the judgments of Hadrian\'s great jurist Salvius Julianus were cited; African stylists were even accustomed to refer by it to Sallust, their great model. There is a tendency, cropping out occasionally, in the Old Testament, to omit the name of God as superfluous, when He, as the great logical subject always in mind, would be easily understood (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',20,23);">Job 20:23</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',21,17);">21:17</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',114,2);">Ps 114:2</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Lam\',4,22);">La 4:22</a>). So, too, when the New Testament writers quoted Scripture there was no need to say whose word it was: that lay beyond question in every mind. This usage, accordingly, is a specially striking intimation of the vivid sense which the New Testament writers had of the Divine origin of the Scriptures, and means that in citing them they were acutely conscious that they were citing immediate words of God. How completely the Scriptures were to them just the word of God may be illustrated by a passage like <a onClick="return mV(\'Gal\',3,16);">Ga 3:16</a>: "He saith not, And to seeds, as of many; but as of one, And to thy seed, which is Christ." We have seen our Lord hanging an argument on the very words of Scripture (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',10,34);">Joh 10:34</a>); elsewhere His reasoning depends on the particular tense (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',22,32);">Mt 22:32</a>) or word (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',22,43);">Mt 22:43</a>) used in Scripture. Here Paul\'s argument rests similarly on a grammatical form. No doubt. it is the grammatical form of the word which God is recorded as having spoken to Abraham that is in question. But Paul knows what grammatical form God employed in speaking to Abraham only as the Scriptures have transmitted it to him; and, as we have seen, in citing the words of God and the words of Scripture he was not accustomed to make any distinction between them. It is probably the Scriptural word as a Scriptural word, therefore, which he has here in mind: though, of course, it is possible that what he here witnesses to is rather the detailed trustworthiness of the Scriptural record than its direct divinity<74>if we can separate two things which apparently were not separated in Paul\'s mind. This much we can at least say without straining, that the designation of Scripture as "scripture" and its citation by the formula, "It is written," attest primarily its indefectible authority; the designation of it as "oracles" and the adduction of it by the formula, "It says," attest primarily its immediate divinity. Its authority rests on its divinity and its divinity expresses itself in its trustworthiness; and the New Testament writers in all their use of it treat it as what they declare it to be<62>a God-breathed document, which, because God-breathed, is through and through trustworthy in all its assertions, authoritative in all its declarations, and down to its last particular, the very word of God, His "oracles."<P>9. The Human Element in Scripture:<P>That the Scriptures are throughout a Divine book, created by the Divine energy and speaking in their every part with Divine authority directly to the heart of the readers, is the fundamental fact concerning Scripture them which is witnessed by Christ and the sacred writers to whom we owe the New Testament. But the strength and constancy with which they bear witness to this primary fact do not prevent their recognizing by the side of it that the Scriptures have come into being by the agency of men. It would be inexact to say that they recognize a human element in Scripture: they do not parcel Scripture out, assigning portions of it, or elements in it, respectively to God and man. In their view the whole of Scripture in all its parts and in all its elements, down to the least minutiae, in form of expression as well as in substance of teaching, is from God; but the whole of it has been given by God through the instrumentality of men. There is, therefore, in their view, not, indeed, a human element or ingredient in Scripture, and much less human divisions or sections of Scripture, but a human side or aspect to Scripture; and they do not fail to give full recognition to this human side or aspect. In one of the primary passages which has already been before us, their conception is given, if somewhat broad and very succinct, yet clear expression. No \'prophecy,\' Peter tells us (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Pe\',1,21);">2Pe 1:21</a>), \'ever came by the will of man; but as borne by the Holy Ghost, men spake from God.\' Here the whole initiative is assigned to God, and such complete control of the human agents that the product is truly God\'s work. The men who speak in this "prophecy of scripture" speak not of themselves or out of themselves, but from "God": they speak only as they are "borne by the Holy Ghost." But it is they, after all, who speak. Scripture is the product of man, but only of man speaking from God and under such a control of the Holy Spirit as that in their speaking they are "borne" by Him. The conception obviously is that the Scriptures have been given by the instrumentality of men; and this conception finds repeated incidental expression throughout the New Testament.<P>It is this conception, for example, which is expressed when our Lord, quoting <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',110,\'1-\');">Ps 110</a>, declares of its words that "David himself said in the Holy Spirit" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',12,36);">Mr 12:36</a>). There is a certain emphasis here on the words being David\'s own words, which is due to the requirements of the argument our Lord was conducting, but which none the less sincerely represents our Lord\'s conception of their origin. They are David\'s own words which we find in <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',110,\'1-\');">Ps 110</a>, therefore; but they are David\'s own words, spoken not of his own motion merely, but "in the Holy Spirit," that is to say<61>we could not better paraphrase it<69>"as borne by the Holy Spirit." In other words, they are "God-breathed" words and therefore authoritative in a sense above what any words of David, not spoken in the Holy Spirit, could possibly be. Generalizing the matter, we may say that the words of Scripture are conceived by our Lord and the New Testament writers as the words of their human authors when speaking "in the Holy Spirit," that is to say, by His initiative and under His controlling direction. The conception finds even more precise expression, perhaps, in such a statement as we find<6E>it is Peter who is speaking and it is again a psalm which is cited<65>in <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',1,16);">Ac 1:16</a>, "The Holy Spirit spake by the mouth of David." Here the Holy Spirit is adduced, of course, as the real author of what is said (and hence, Peter\'s certainty that what is said will be fulfilled); but David\'s mouth is expressly designated as the instrument (it is the instrumental preposition that is used) by means of which the Holy Spirit speaks the Scripture in question. He does not speak save through David\'s mouth. Accordingly, in <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',4,25);">Ac 4:25</a>, \'the Lord that made the heaven and earth,\' acting by His Holy Spirit, is declared to have spoken another psalm \'through the mouth of ...David,\' His "servant"; and in <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',13,35);">Mt 13:35</a> still another psalm is adduced as "spoken through the prophet" (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',2,5);">Mt 2:5</a>). In the very act of energetically asserting the Divine origin of Scripture the human instrumentality through which it is given is constantly recognized. The New Testament writers have, therefore, no difficulty in assigning Scripture to its human authors, or in discovering in Scripture traits due to its human authorship. They freely quote it by such simple formulas as these: "Moses saith" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',10,19);">Ro 10:19</a>); "Moses said" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',22,24);">Mt 22:24</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',10,\'1-\');">Mr 10</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',3,22);">Ac 3:22</a>); "Moses writeth" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',10,5);">Ro 10:5</a>); "Moses wrote" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',12,19);">Mr 12:19</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',20,28);">Lu 20:28</a>); "Isaiah ...saith" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',10,20);">Ro 10:20</a>); "Isaiah said" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',12,39);">Joh 12:39</a>); "Isaiah crieth" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',9,27);">Ro 9:27</a>); "Isaiah hath said before" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',9,29);">Ro 9:29</a>); "said Isaiah the prophet" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',1,23);">Joh 1:23</a>); "did Isaiah prophesy" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',7,6);">Mr 7:6</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',15,7);">Mt 15:7</a>); "David saith" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',20,42);">Lu 20:42</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',2,25);">Ac 2:25</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',11,9);">Ro 11:9</a>); "David said" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',12,36);">Mr 12:36</a>). It is to be noted that when thus Scripture is adduced by the names of its human authors, it is a matter of complete indifference whether the words adduced are comments of these authors or direct words of God recorded by them. As the plainest words of the human authors are assigned to God as their real author, so the most express words of God, repeated by the Scriptural writers, are cited by the names of these human writers (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',15,7);">Mt 15:7</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',7,6);">Mr 7:6</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',10,5,8,20);">Ro 10:5,19,20</a>; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',7,10);">Mr 7:10</a> from the Decalogue). To say that "Moses" or "David says," is evidently thus only a way of saying that "Scripture says," which is the same as to say that "God says." Such modes of citing Scripture, accordingly, carry us little beyond merely connecting the name, or perhaps we may say the individuality, of the several writers with the portions of Scripture given through each. How it was given through them is left meanwhile, if not without suggestion, yet without specific explanation. We seem safe only in inferring this much: that the gift of Scripture through its human authors took place by a process much more intimate than can be expressed by the term "dictation," and that it took place in a process in which the control of the Holy Spirit was too complete and pervasive to permit the human qualities of the secondary authors in any way to condition the purity of the product as the word of God. The Scriptures, in other words, are conceived by the writers of the New Testament as through and through God\'s book, in every part expressive of His mind, given through men after a fashion which does no violence to their nature as men, and constitutes the book also men\'s book as well as God\'s, in every part expressive of the mind of its human authors.<P>10. Activities of God in Giving Scripture:<P>If we attempt to get behind this broad statement and to obtain a more detailed conception of the activities by which God has given the Scriptures, we are thrown back upon somewhat general representations, supported by the analogy of the modes Scripture of God\'s working in other spheres of His operation. It is very desirable that we should free ourselves at the outset from influences arising from the current employment of the term "inspiration" to designate this process. This term is not a Biblical term and its etymological implications are not perfectly accordant with the Biblical conception of the modes of the Divine operation in giving the Scriptures. The Biblical writers do not conceive of the Scriptures as a human product breathed into by the Divine Spirit, and thus heightened in its qualities or endowed with new qualities; but as a Divine product produced through the instrumentality of men. They do not conceive of these men, by whose instrumentality Scripture is produced, as working upon their own initiative, though energized by God to greater effort and higher achievement, but as moved by the Divine initiative and borne by the irresistible power of the Spirit of God along ways of His choosing to ends of His appointment. The difference between the two conceptions may not appear great when the mind is fixed exclusively upon the nature of the resulting product. But they are differing conceptions, and look at the production of Scripture from distinct points of view<65>the human and the Divine; and the involved mental attitudes toward the origin of Scripture are very diverse. The term "inspiration" is too firmly fixed, in both theological and popular usage, as the technical designation of the action of God in giving the Scriptures, to be replaced; and we may be thankful that its native implications lie as close as they do to the Biblical conceptions. Meanwhile, however, it may be justly insisted that it shall receive its definition from the representations of Scripture, and not be permitted to impose upon our thought ideas of the origin of Scripture derived from an analysis of its own implications, etymological or historical. The Scriptural conception of the relation of the Divine Spirit to the human authors in the production of Scripture is better expressed by the figure of "bearing" than by the figure of "inbreathing"; and when our Biblical writers speak of the action of the Spirit of God in this relation as a breathing, they represent it as a "breathing out" of the Scriptures by the Spirit, and not a "breathing into" the Scriptures by Him.<P>11. General Problem of Origin: God\'s Part:<P>So soon, however, as we seriously endeavor to form for ourselves a clear conception of the precise nature of the Divine action in this "breathing out" of the Scriptures<65>this "bearing" of the writers of the Scriptures to their appointed goal of the production of a book of Divine trustworthiness and indefectible authority<74>we become acutely aware of a more deeply lying and much wider problem, apart from which this one of inspiration, technically so called, cannot be profitably considered. This is the general problem of the origin of the Scriptures and the part of God in all that complex of processes by the interaction of which these books, which we call the sacred Scriptures, with all their peculiarities, and all their qualities of whatever sort, have been brought into being. For, of course, these books were not produced suddenly, by some miraculous act<63>handed down complete out of heaven, as the phrase goes; but, like all other products of time, are the ultimate effect of many processes cooperating through long periods. There is to be considered, for instance, the preparation of the material which forms the subject-matter of these books: in a sacred history, say, for example, to be narrated; or in a religious experience which may serve as a norm for record; or in a logical elaboration of the contents of revelation which may be placed at the service of God\'s people; or in the progressive revelation of Divine truth itself, supplying their culminating contents. And there is the preparation of the men to write these books to be considered, a preparation physical, intellectual, spiritual, which must have attended them throughout their whole lives, and, indeed, must have had its beginning in their remote ancestors, and the effect of which was to bring the right men to the right places at the right times, with the right endowments, impulses, acquirements, to write just the books which were designed for them. When "inspiration," technically so called, is superinduced on lines of preparation like these, it takes on quite a different aspect from that which it bears when it is thought of as an isolated action of the Divine Spirit operating out of all relation to historical processes. Representations are sometimes made as if, when God wished to produce sacred books which would incorporate His will<6C>a series of letters like those of Paul, for example<6C>He was reduced to the necessity of going down to earth and painfully scrutinizing the men He found there, seeking anxiously for the one who, on the whole, promised best for His purpose; and then violently forcing the material He wished expressed through him, against his natural bent, and with as little loss from his recalcitrant characteristics as possible. Of course, nothing of the sort took place. If God wished to give His people a series of letters like Paul\'s, He prepared a Paul to write them, and the Paul He brought to the task was a Paul who spontaneously would write just such letters.<P>12. How Human Qualities Affected Scripture. Providential Preparation:<P>If we bear this in mind, we shall know what estimate to place upon the common representation to the effect that the human characteristics of the writers must, and in point of fact do, condition and qualify the writings produced by them, the implication being that, therefore, we cannot get from mark a pure word of God. As light that passes through the colored glass of a cathedral window, we are told, is light from heaven, but is stained by the tints of the glass through which it passes; so any word of God which is passed through the mind and soul of a man must come out discolored by the personality through which it is given, and just to that degree ceases to be the pure word of God. But what if this personality has itself been formed by God into precisely the personality it is, for the express purpose of communicating to the word given through it just the coloring which it gives it? What if the colors of the stained-glass window have been designed by the architect for the express purpose of giving to the light that floods the cathedral precisely the tone and quality it receives from them? What if the word of God that comes to His people is framed by God into the word of God it is, precisely by means of the qualities of the men formed by Him for the purpose, through which it is given? When we think of God the Lord giving by His Spirit a body of authoritative Scriptures to His people, we must remember that He is the God of providence and of grace as well as of revelation and inspiration, and that He holds all the lines of preparation as fully under His direction as He does the specific operation which we call technically, in the narrow sense, by the name of "inspiration." The production of the Scriptures is, in point of fact, a long process, in the course of which numerous and very varied Divine activities are involved, providential, gracious, miraculous, all of which must be taken into account in any attempt to explain the relation of God to the production of Scripture. When they are all taken into account we can no longer wonder that the resultant Scriptures are constantly spoken of as the pure word of God. We wonder, rather, that an additional operation of God<6F>what we call specifically "inspiration," in its technical sense<73>was thought necessary. Consider, for example, how a piece of sacred history<72>say the Book of Chronicles, or the great historical work, Gospel and Acts, of Luke<6B>is brought to the writing. There is first of all the preparation of the history to be written: God the Lord leads the sequence of occurrences through the development He has designed for them that they may convey their lessons to His people: a "teleological" or "etiological" character is inherent in the very course of events. Then He prepares a man, by birth, training, experience, gifts of grace, and, if need be, of revelation, capable of appreciating this historical development and eager to search it out, thrilling in all his being with its lessons and bent upon making them clear and effective to others. When, then, by His providence, God sets this man to work on the writing of this history, will there not be spontaneously written by him the history which it was Divinely intended should be written? Or consider how a psalmist would be prepared to put into moving verse a piece of normative religious experience: how he would be born with just the right quality of religious sensibility, of parents through whom he should receive just the right hereditary bent, and from whom he should get precisely the right religious example and training, in circumstances of life in which his religious tendencies should be developed precisely on right lines; how he would be brought through just the right experiences to quicken in him the precise emotions he would be called upon to express, and finally would be placed in precisely the exigencies which would call out their expression. Or consider the providential preparation of a writer of a didactic epistle<6C>by means of which he should be given the intellectual breadth and acuteness, and be trained in habitudes of reasoning, and placed in the situations which would call out precisely the argumentative presentation of Christian truth which was required of him. When we give due place in our thoughts to the universality of the providential government of God, to the minuteness and completeness of its sway, and to its invariable efficacy, we may be inclined to ask what is needed beyond this mere providential government to secure the production of sacred books which should be in every detail absolutely accordant with the Divine will.<P>13. "Inspiration" More than Mere "Providence":<P>The answer is, Nothing is needed beyond mere providence to secure such books<6B>provided only that it does not lie in the Divine purpose that these books should possess qualities which rise above the powers of men to produce, even under the most complete Divine guidance. For providence is guidance; and guidance can bring one only so far as his own power can carry him. If heights are to be scaled above man\'s native power to achieve, then something more than guidance, however effective, is necessary. This is the reason for the superinduction, at the end of the long process of the production of Scripture, of the additional Divine operation which we call technically "inspiration." By it, the Spirit of God, flowing confluently in with the providentially and graciously determined work of men, spontaneously producing under the Divine directions the writings appointed to them, gives the product a Divine quality unattainable by human powers alone. Thus, these books become not merely the word of godly men, but the immediate word of God Himself, speaking directly as such to the minds and hearts of every reader. The value of "inspiration" emerges, thus, as twofold. It gives to the books written under its "bearing" a quality which is truly superhuman; a trustworthiness, an authority, a searchingness, a profundity, a profitableness which is altogether Divine. And it speaks this Divine word immediately to each reader\'s heart and conscience; so that he does not require to make his way to God, painfully, perhaps even uncertainly, through the words of His servants, the human instruments in writing the Scriptures, but can listen directly to the Divine voice itself speaking immediately in the Scriptural word to him.<P>14. Witness of New Testament Writers to Divine Operation:<P>That the writers of the New Testament themselves conceive the Scriptures to have been produced thus by Divine operations extending through the increasing ages and involving a multitude of varied activities, can be made clear by simply attending to the occasional references they make to this or that step in the process. It lies, for example, on the face of their expositions, that they of New Testament looked upon the Biblical history as teleological. Not only do they tell us that to "whatsoever things were written afore-time were written for our learning, that through patience and through comfort of the scriptures we might have hope" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',15,4);">Ro 15:4</a>; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',4,23,24);">Ro 4:23-24</a>); they speak also of the course of the historical events themselves as guided for our benefit: "Now these things happened unto them by way of example"<22>in a typical fashion, in such a way that, as they occurred, a typical character, or predictive reference impressed itself upon them; that is to say, briefly, the history occurred as it did in order to bear a message to us<75>"and they were written for our admonition, upon whom the ends of the ages are come" (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',10,11);">1Co 10:11</a>; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',10,6);">1Co 10:6</a>). Accordingly, it has become a commonplace of Biblical exposition that "the history of redemption itself is a typically progressive one" (Kuper), and is "in a manner impregnated with the prophetic element," so as to form a "part of a great plan which stretches from the fall of man to the first consummation of all things in glory; and, in so far as it reveals the mind of God toward man, carries a respect to the future not less than to the present" (P. Fairbairn). It lies equally on the face of the New Testament allusions to the subject that its writers understood that the preparation of men to become vehicles of God\'s message to man was not of yesterday, but had its beginnings in the very origin of their being. The call by which Paul, for example, was made an apostle of Jesus Christ was sudden and apparently without antecedents; but it is precisely this Paul who reckons this call as only one step in a long process, the beginnings of which antedated his own existence: "But when it was the good pleasure of God, who separated me, even from my mother\'s womb, and called me through his grace, to reveal his Son in me" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gal\',1,15,16);">Ga 1:15-16</a>; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',1,5);">Jer 1:5</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',49,1,5);">Isa 49:1, 5</a>). The recognition by the writers of the New Testament of the experiences of God\'s grace, which had been vouchsafed to them as an integral element in their fitting to be the bearers of His gospel to others, finds such pervasive expression that the only difficulty is to select from the mass the most illustrative passages. Such a statement as Paul gives in the opening verses of 2Co is thoroughly typical. There he represents that he has been afflicted and comforted to the end that he might "be able to comfort them that are in any affliction, through the comfort wherewith" he had himself been "comforted of God." For, he explains, Whether we are afflicted, it is for your comfort and salvation; or whether we are comforted, it is for your comfort, which worketh in the patient enduring of the same sufferings which we also suffer" (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',1,\'4-6\');">2Co 1:4-6</a>). It is beyond question, therefore, that the New Testament writers, when they declare the Scriptures to be the product of the Divine breath, and explain this as meaning that the writers of these Scriptures wrote them only as borne by the Holy Spirit in such a fashion that they spoke, not out of themselves, but "from God," are thinking of this operation of the Spirit only as the final act of God in the production of the Scriptures, superinduced upon a long series of processes, providential, gracious, miraculous, by which the matter of Scripture had been prepared for writing, and the men for writing it, and the writing of it had been actually brought to pass. It is this final act in the production of Scripture which is technically called "inspiration"; and inspiration is thus brought before us as, in the minds of the writers of the New Testament, that particular operation of God in the production of Scripture which takes effect at the very point of the writing of Scripture<72>understanding the term "writing" here as inclusive of all the processes of the actual composition of Scripture, the investigation of documents, the collection of facts, the excogitation of conclusions, the adaptation of exhortations as means to ends and the like<6B>with the effect of giving to the resultant Scripture a specifically supernatural character, and constituting it a Divine, as well as human, book. Obviously the mode of operation of this Divine activity moving to this result is conceived, in full accord with the analogy of the Divine operations in other spheres of its activity, in providence and in grace alike, as confluent with the human activities operative in the case; as, in a word, of the nature of what has come to be known as "immanent action."<P>15. "Inspiration" and "Revelation":<P>It will not escape observation that thus "inspiration" is made a mode of "revelation." We are often exhorted, to be sure, to distinguish sharply between "inspiration" and "revelation"; and the exhortation is just when "revelation" is taken in one of its narrower senses, of, say, an external manifestation of God, or of an immediate communication from God in words. But "inspiration" does not differ from "revelation" in these narrowed senses as genus from genus, but as a species of one genus differs from another. That operation of God which we call "inspiration," that is to say, that operation of the Spirit of God by which He "bears" men in the process of composing Scripture, so that they write, not of themselves, but "from God," is one of the modes in which God makes known to men His being, His will, His operations, His purposes. It is as distinctly a mode of revelation as any mode of revelation can be, and therefore it performs the same office which all revelation performs, that is to say, in the express words of Paul, it makes men wise, and makes them wise unto salvation. All "special" or "supernatural" revelation (which is redemptive in its very idea, and occupies a place as a substantial element in God\'s redemptive processes) has precisely this for its end; and Scripture, as a mode of the redemptive revelation of God, finds its fundamental purpose just in this: if the "inspiration" by which Scripture is produced renders it trustworthy and authoritative, it renders it trustworthy and authoritative only that it may the better serve to make men wise unto salvation. Scripture is conceived, from the point of view of the writers of the New Testament, not merely as the record of revelations, but as itself a part of the redemptive revelation of God; not merely as the record of the redemptive acts by which God is saving the world, but as itself one of these redemptive acts, having its own part to play in the great work of establishing and building up the kingdom of God. What gives it a place among the redemptive acts of God is its Divine origination, taken in its widest sense, as inclusive of all the Divine operations, providential, gracious and expressly supernatural, by which it has been made just what it is<69>a body of writings able to make wise unto salvation, and profitable for making the man of God perfect. What gives it its place among the modes of revelation is, however, specifically the culminating one of these Divine operations, which we call "inspiration"; that is to say, the action of the Spirit of God in so "bearing" its human authors in their work of producing Scripture, as that in these Scriptures they speak, not out of themselves, but "from God." It is this act by virtue of which the Scriptures may properly be called "God-breathed."<P>16. Scriptures a Divine-Human Book?:<P>It has been customary among a certain school of writers to speak of the Scriptures, because thus "inspired," as a Divine-human book, and to appeal to the analogy of Our Lord\'s Divine-human personality to explain their peculiar qualities as such. The expression calls attention to an important fact, and the analogy holds good a certain distance. There are human and Divine sides to Scripture, and, as we cursorily examine it, we may perceive in it, alternately, traits which suggest now the one, now the other factor in its origin. But the analogy with our Lord\' s Divine-human personality may easily be pressed beyond reason. There is no hypostatic union between the Divine and the human in Scripture; we cannot parallel the "inscripturation" of the Holy Spirit and the incarnation of the Son of God. The Scriptures are merely the product of Divine and human forces working together to produce a product in the production of which the human forces work under the initiation and prevalent direction of the Divine: the person of our Lord unites in itself Divine and human natures, each of which retains its distinctness while operating only in relation to the other. Between such diverse things there can exist only a remote analogy; and, in point of fact, the analogy in the present instance amounts to no more than that in both cases Divine and human factors are involved, though very differently. In the one they unite to constitute a Divine-human person, in the other they cooperate to perform a Divine-human work. Even so distant an analogy may enable us, however, to recognize that as, in the case of our Lord\'s person, the human nature remains truly human while yet it can never fall into sin or error because it can never act out of relation with the Divine nature into conjunction with which it has been brought; so in the case of the production of Scripture by the conjoint action of human and Divine factors, the human factors have acted as human factors and have left their mark on the product as such, and yet cannot have fallen into that error which we say it is human to fall into, because they have not acted apart from the Divine factors, by themselves, but only under their unerring guidance.<P>17. Scripture of New Testament Writers Was the Old Testament:<P>The New Testament testimony is to the Divine origin and qualities of "Scripture"; and "Scripture" to the writers of the New Testament was fundamentally, of course, the Old Testament. In the primary passage, in which we are told that "every" or "all Scripture" is "God breathed," the direct reference is to the "sacred writings" which Timothy had had in knowledge since his infancy, and these were, of course, just the sacred books of the Jews (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ti\',3,16);">2Ti 3:16</a>). What is explicit here is implicit in all the allusions to inspired Scriptures in the New Testament. Accordingly, it is frequently said that our entire testimony to the inspiration of Scripture concerns the Old Testament alone. In many ways, however, this is overstated. Our present concern is not with the extent of "Scripture" but with the nature of "Scripture"; and we cannot present here the considerations which justify extending to the New Testament the inspiration which the New Testament writers attribute to the Old Testament. It will not be out of place, however, to point out simply that the New Testament writers obviously themselves made this extension. They do not for an instant imagine themselves, as ministers of a new covenant, less in possession of the Spirit of God than the ministers of the old covenant: they freely recognize, indeed, that they have no sufficiency of themselves, but they know that God has made them sufficient (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',3,5,6);">2Co 3:5-6</a>). They prosecute their work of proclaiming the gospel, therefore, in full confidence that they speak "by the Holy Spirit" (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Pe\',1,12);">1Pe 1:12</a>), to whom they attribute both the matter and form of their teaching (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',2,13);">1Co 2:13</a>). They, therefore, speak with the utmost assurance of their teaching (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gal\',1,7,8);">Ga 1:7-8</a>); and they issue commands with the completest authority (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Th\',4,2,14);">1Th 4:2, 14</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Th\',3,6,12);">2Th 3:6, 12</a>), making it, indeed, the test of whether one has the Spirit that he should recognize what they demand as commandments of God (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',14,37);">1Co 14:37</a>). It would be strange, indeed, if these high claims were made for their oral teaching and commandments exclusively. In point of fact, they are made explicitly also for their written injunctions. It was "the things" which Paul was "writing," the recognition of which as commands of the Lord, he makes the test of a Spirit-led man (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',14,37);">1Co 14:37</a>). It is his "word by this epistle," obedience to which he makes the condition of Christian communion (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Th\',3,14);">2Th 3:14</a>). There seems involved in such an attitude toward their own teaching, oral and written, a claim on the part of the New Testament writers to something very much like the "inspiration<6F>which they attribute to the writers of the Old Testament.<P>18. Inclusion of New Testament:<P>And all doubt is dispelled when we observe the New Testament writers placing the writings of one another in the same category of "Scripture" with the books of the Old Testament. The same Paul who, in <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ti\',3,16);">2Ti 3:16</a>, declared that \'every\' or \'all scripture is God-breathed\' had already written in <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ti\',5,18);">1Ti 5:18</a>: "For the scripture saith, Thou shall not muzzle the ox when he treadeth out the corn (grain). And, The laborer is worthy of his hire." The first clause here is derived from Deuteronomy and the second from the Gospel of Luke, though both are cited as together constituting, or better, forming part of the "Scripture" which Paul adduces as so authoritative as by its mere citation to end all strife. Who shall say that, in the declaration of the later epistle that "all" or "every" Scripture is God-breathed, Paul did not have Luke, and, along with Luke, whatever other new books he classed with the old under the name of Scripture, in the back of his mind, along with those old books which Timothy had had in his hands from infancy? And the same Peter who declared that every "prophecy of scripture" was the product of men who spoke "from God," being \'borne\' by the Holy Spirit (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Pe\',1,21);">2Pe 1:21</a>), in this same epistle (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Pe\',3,16);">2Pe 3:16</a>), places Paul\'s Epistles in the category of Scripture along with whatever other books deserve that name. For Paul, says he, wrote these epistles, not out of his own wisdom, but "according to the wisdom given to him," and though there are some things in them hard to be understood, yet it is only the ignorant and unsteadfast" who wrest these difficult passages<65>as what else could be expected of men who wrest "also the other Scriptures" (obviously the Old Testament is meant)<29>"unto their own destruction"? Is it possible to say that Peter could not have had these epistles of Paul also lurking somewhere in the back of his mind, along with "the other scriptures," when he told his readers that every "prophecy of scripture" owes its origin to the prevailing operation of the Holy Ghost? What must be understood in estimating the testimony of the New Testament writers to the inspiration of Scripture is that "Scripture" stood in their minds as the title of a unitary body of books, throughout the gift of God through His Spirit to His people; but that this body of writings was at the same time understood to be a growing aggregate, so that what is said of it applies to the new books which were being added to it as the Spirit gave them, as fully as to the old books which had come down to them from their hoary past. It is a mere matter of detail to determine precisely what new books were thus included by them in the category "Scripture." They tell us some of them themselves. Those who received them from their hands tell us of others. And when we put the two bodies of testimony together we find that they constitute just our New Testament. It is no pressure of the witness of the writers of the New Testament to the inspiration of the Scripture, therefore, to look upon it as covering the entire body of "Scriptures," the new books which they were themselves adding to this aggregate, as well as the old books which they had received as Scripture from the fathers. Whatever can lay claim by just right to the appellation of "Scripture," as employed in its eminent sense by those writers, can by the same just right lay claim to the "inspiration" which they ascribe to this "Scripture."<P>LITERATURE.<P>J. Gerhard, Loci Theolog., Locus I; F. Turretin, Instit. Theol., Locus II; B. de Moor, Commentary in J. Marckii Comp., cap. ii; C. Hodge, Syst. Theol., New York,1871,I, 151-86; Henry B. Smith, The Inspiration of the Holy Scriptures, New York,1855,new edition, Cincinnati, 1891; A. Kuyper, Encyclopedia der heilige Godgeleerdheid, 1888-89, II, 347ff, English translation; Encyclopedia of Sacred Theology, New York,1898,341-563; also De Schrift her woord Gods, Tiel, 1870; H. Bavinck, Gereformeerde Dogmatiek2, Kampen,1906,I, 406-527; R. Haldane, The Verbal Inspiration of the Scriptures Established, Edinburgh, 1830; J. T. Beck, Einleitung in das System der christlichen Lehre, Stuttgart,1838,2nd edition, 1870; A. G. Rudelbach, "Die Lehre yon der Inspiration der heil. Schrift," Zeitschrift fur die gesammte Lutherische Theologie und Kirche, 1840,1,1841,1,1842, 1; S. R. L. Gaussen, Theopneustie ou inspiration pleniere des saintes ecritures2, Paris,1842,English translation by E. N. Kirk, New York, 1842; also Theopneustia; the Plenary Inspiration of the Holy Scriptures, David Scott\'s translation, reedited and revised by B. W. Carr, with a preface by C. H. Spurgeon, London, 1888; William Lee, The Inspiration of the Holy Scriptures, Donellan Lecture,1852,New York, 1857; James Bannerman, Inspiration: the Infallible Truth and Divine Authority of the Holy Scriptures, Edinburgh, 1865; F. L. Patton, The Inspiration of the Scriptures, Philadelphia, 1869 (reviewing Lee and Bannerman); Charles Elliott, A Treatise on the Inspiration of the Holy Scriptures, Edinburgh, 1877; A. A. Hodge and B. B. Warfield, "Inspiration," Presbyterian Review, April,1881,also tract, Philadelphia, 1881; R. Watts, The Rule of Faith and the Doctrine of Inspiration, Edinburgh, 1885; A. Cave, The Inspiration of the O T Inductively Considered, London, 1888; B. Manly, The Bible Doctrine of Inspiration, New York, 1888; W. Rohnert, Die Inspiration der heiligen Schrift und ihre Bestreiter, Leipzig, 1889; A. W. Dieckhoff, Die Inspiration und Irrthumlosigkeit der heiligen Schrift, Leipzig, 1891; J. Wichelhaus, Die Lehre der heiligen Schrift, Stuttgart, 1892; J. Macgregor, The Revelation and the Record, Edinburgh, 1893; J. Urquhart, The Inspiration and Accuracy of the Holy Scriptures, London, 1895; C. Pesch, De Inspiratione Sacrae Scripturae, Freiburg, 1906; James Orr, Revelation and Inspiration, London, 1910.``187';
isbe[4622]='Instant; Instantly`in\'-stant, in\'-stant-li: Derivative from Latin instare. Found in English with various meanings from the 15th century to the present time.<P>Instant is used once in <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',29,5);">Isa 29:5</a> in the sense of immediate time; elsewhere in the sense of urgent, pressing; <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',23,23);">Lu 23:23</a>, where "were instant" is the King James Version translation of the verb epekeinto; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',12,12);">Ro 12:12</a>, where it is involved in the verb proskartereo; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',6,4);">Ac 6:4</a>. In <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ti\',4,2);">2Ti 4:2</a> it stands for the expressive verb epistethi, "stand to."<P>Instantly (urgently, steadfastly) is the King James Version rendering of two different Greek phrases, spoudaios, found in <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',7,4);">Lu 7:4</a>; and en ekteneia, in <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',26,7);">Ac 26:7</a>. In both cases the American Standard Revised Version renders "earnestly."``121';
isbe[4623]='Instruction`in-struk\'-shun.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=CATECHIST">CATECHIST</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=EDUCATION">EDUCATION</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=SCHOOL">SCHOOL</a>`1';
isbe[4624]='Instrument`in\'-stroo-ment (keli; in Greek plural hopla, <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',6,13);">Ro 6:13</a>): The word in the Old Testament is used for utensils for service, chiefly in connection with the sanctuary (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',25,9);">Ex 25:9</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',4,12,26,32);">Nu 4:12, 26, 32</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',19,21);">1Ki 19:21</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',9,29);">1Ch 9:29</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',4,16);">2Ch 4:16</a>, the King James Version); for weapons of war (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',8,12);">1Sa 8:12</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',12,33,37);">1Ch 12:33, 37</a>, etc.); notably for musical instruments. See <a href="study/isbe/search.html?string=MUSIC">MUSIC</A>. The members of the body are described by Paul (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',6,13);">Ro 6:13</a>) as "instruments" to be used in the service of righteousness, as before they were in the service of unrighteousness.``1';
isbe[4625]='Instruments of Music`(shalishim): Thus, the Revised Version (British and American) and the King James Version (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',18,6);">1Sa 18:6</a>), the Revised Version margin "triangles" or "three-stringed instruments."`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=MUSIC">MUSIC</a>`1';
isbe[4626]='Insurrection`in-su-rek\'-shun: The word in <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',64,2);">Ps 64:2</a> the King James Version is changed in the Revised Version (British and American) into "tumult"; in <a onClick="return mV(\'Ezr\',4,19);">Ezr 4:19</a> (verb) it represents the Aramaic nesa\', to "lift up oneself." In the New Testament stasis, is rendered "insurrection" in <a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',15,7);">Mr 15:7</a> the King James Version (where compare the verb "made insurrection"), but in <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',23,19,25);">Lu 23:19, 25</a> "sedition." the Revised Version (British and American) correctly renders "insurrection" throughout; also in <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',24,5);">Ac 24:5</a> "insurrections" for the King James Version "sedition."``1';
isbe[4627]='Integrity`in-teg\'-ri-ti (tom, tummah): The translation of tom, "simplicity," "soundness," "completeness," rendered also "upright," "perfection." Its original sense appears in the phrase letom (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',22,34);">1Ki 22:34</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',18,33);">2Ch 18:33</a>), "A certain man drew his bow at a venture" margin "Hebrew, in his simplicity" (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',15,11);">2Sa 15:11</a>, "in their simplicity"). It is translated "integrity" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',20,5,6);">Ge 20:5-6</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',9,4);">1Ki 9:4</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',7,8);">Ps 7:8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',25,21);">25:21</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',26,1,11);">26:1, 11</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',41,12);">41:12</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',78,72);">78:72</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',19,1);">Pr 19:1</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',20,7);">20:7</a>), in all which places it seems to carry the meaning of simplicity, or sincerity of heart and intention, truthfulness, uprightness. In the plural (tummim) it is one of the words on the breastplate of the high priest (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',28,30);">Ex 28:30</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',33,8);">De 33:8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Ezr\',2,63);">Ezr 2:63</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Neh\',7,65);">Ne 7:65</a>), one of the sacred lots, indicating, perhaps, "innocence" or "integrity" Septuagint aletheia). See <a href="study/isbe/search.html?string=URIM+AND+THUMMIM">URIM AND THUMMIM</a>. Another word translated "integrity" is tummah, from tamam, "to complete," "be upright," "perfect," only in <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',2,3,9);">Job 2:3, 9</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',27,5);">27:5</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',31,6);">31:6</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',11,3);">Pr 11:3</a>.<P>The word "integrity" does not occur in the New Testament, but its equivalents may be seen in "sincerity," "truth," the "pure heart," the "single eye," etc. In the above sense of simplicity of intention it is equivalent to being honest, sincere, genuine, and is fundamental to true character.``185';
isbe[4628]='Intelligence`in-tel\'-i-gens (bin): Occurs only once in the King James Version as the translation of bin, "to discriminate" (frequently translated "to understand"), in <a onClick="return mV(\'Dan\',11,30);">Da 11:30</a> the King James Version, "(he shall) have intelligence with them that forsake the holy covenant," the Revised Version (British and American) renders "have regard unto them." "Intelligence" occurs in 2Macc 3:9 the King James Version, in the sense of information (so the Revised Version (British and American)).``1';
isbe[4629]='Intend; Intent`in-tend\', in-tent\':Early English words derived from Latin and used in the King James Version, sometimes in the Revised Version (British and American), to translate a number of different expressions of the original.<P>Intend is sometimes used in English in the literal sense of Latin intendere, "to stretch," but in the English Bible it is used only of the direction of the mind toward an object. Sometimes it is used of mere design (mello), <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',5,35);">Ac 5:35</a> the King James Version; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',20,13);">Ac 20:13</a>; or of desired action (thelo), <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',14,28);">Lu 14:28</a> the King James Version; again of a fixed purpose (boulomai), <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',5,28);">Ac 5:28</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',12,4);">12:4</a>; or, finally, of a declared intention (\'amar), <a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',22,33);">Jos 22:33</a> the King James Version; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',28,13);">2Ch 28:13</a> the King James Version.<P>Intent is used only of purpose, and is the translation sometimes of a conjunction (lebha\'abhur), <a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',17,14);">2Sa 17:14</a>; (lema\'an), <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',10,19);">2Ki 10:19</a>; (hina), <a onClick="return mV(\'Eph\',3,10);">Eph 3:10</a>; sometimes of an infinitive of purpose, <a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',10,6);">1Co 10:6</a>; or of a preposition with pronoun (eis touto), <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',9,21);">Ac 9:21</a>, and sometimes of a substantive (logo), <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',10,29);">Ac 10:29</a>. This variety of original expressions represented in the English by single terms is an interesting illustration of the extent of interpretation embodied in our English Bible.``121';
isbe[4630]='Inter-Testamental, History And Literature`in-ter-tes-ta-men\'-tal.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=BETWEEN+THE+TESTAMENTS">BETWEEN THE TESTAMENTS</a>`1';
isbe[4631]='Intercession`in-ter-sesh\'-un (pagha\', "to make intercession"; originally "to strike upon," or "against"; then in a good sense, "to assail anyone with petitions," "to urge," and when on behalf of another, "to intercede" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rth\',1,16);">Ru 1:16</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',7,16);">Jer 7:16</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',27,18);">27:18</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',21,15);">Job 21:15</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',23,8);">Ge 23:8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',53,12);">Isa 53:12</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',36,25);">Jer 36:25</a>). A similar idea is found in enteuxis, used as "petition," and in the New Testament "intercession." The English word is derived from Latin intercedo, "to come between," which strangely has the somewhat opposed meanings of "obstruct" and "to interpose on behalf of" a person, and finally "to intercede." The growth of meaning in this word in the various languages is highly suggestive. In the Greek New Testament we find the word in <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ti\',2,1);">1Ti 2:1</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ti\',4,5);">4:5</a>; entugchano, is also found in <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',8,\'26-34\');">Ro 8:26-34</a>):<P><b>Etymology and Meaning of Term</b><P><b>I. MAN\'S INTERCESSION FOR HIS FELLOW-MAN</b><P class="in15">1. Patriarchal Examples<P class="in15">2. Intercessions of Moses<P class="in15">3. The Progress of Religion, Seen in Moses\' Intercessions<P class="in15">4. Intercessory Prayer in Israel\'s Later History<P class="in15">5. The Rise of Official Intercession<P class="in15">6. Samuel as an Intercessor in His Functions as Judge, Priest and Prophet<P class="in15">7. Intercession in the Poetic Books<P class="in15">8. The Books of Wisdom<P class="in15">9. The Prophets\' Succession to Moses and Samuel<P class="in15">10. The Priest and Intercession<P class="in15">11. Intercession in the Gospels<P class="in15">12. Intercessory Prayers of the Church<P class="in15">13. Intercession Found in the Epistles<P><b>II. INTERCESSION PERFECTED IN CHRIST\'S OFFICE AND IN THE CHURCH</b><P><b>III. INTERCESSION OF THE HOLY SPIRIT</b><hr /><P>Etymology and Meaning of Term:<P>The meaning of the word is determined by its use in <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ti\',2,1);">1Ti 2:1</a>, "I exhort, therefore, first of all, that supplications, prayers, intercessions, thanksgivings, be made for all and men"; where the different kinds of prayers appear to be distinguished. Considerable discussion has arisen on the exact meaning of these words. Augustine refers them to the liturgy of the Eucharist. This seems to be importing the significance of the various parts of the ceremony as observed at a time much later than the date of the passage in question. "Supplications" and "prayers" refer to general and specific petitions; "intercessions" will then have the meaning of a request concerning others.<P>Intercession is prayer on behalf of another, and naturally arises from the instinct of the human heart<72>not merely prompted by affection and interest, but recognizing that God\'s relation to man is not merely individual, but social. Religion thus involves man\'s relations to his fellow-man, just as in man\'s social position intercession with one on behalf of another is a common incident, becoming, in the development of society, the function of appointed officials; as in legal and courtly procedure, so in religion, the spontaneous and affectionate prayer to God on behalf of another grows into the regular and orderly service of a duly appointed priesthood. Intercession is thus to be regarded:<P>(1) as the spontaneous act of man for his fellowman;<P>(2) the official act of developed sacerdotalism;<P>(3) the perfecting of the natural movement of humanity, and the typified function of priesthood in the intercession of Christ and the Holy Spirit.<P>I. Man\'s Intercession for His Fellow-Man.<P>1. Patriarchal Examples:<P>Many such prayers are recorded in Scripture. The sacrificial act of Noah may have been partly of this nature, for it is followed by a promise of God on behalf of the race and the earth at large (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',8,\'20-22\');">Ge 8:20-22</a>). Such also is Abraham\'s prayer for Ishmael (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',17,18);">Ge 17:18</a>); Abraham\'s prayer for Sodom (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',18,\'23-33\');">Ge 18:23-33</a>); Abraham for Abimelech (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',20,17);">Ge 20:17</a>). Jacob\'s blessing of Joseph\'s sons is of the nature of intercession (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',48,\'8-22\');">Ge 48:8-22</a>). His dying blessing of his sons is hardly to be regarded as intercessory; it is, rather, declarative, although in the case of Joseph it approaches intercession. The absence of distinct intercessory prayer from Abraham to Moses is to be observed, and shows how intensely personal and individual the religious consciousness was still in its undeveloped quality. In Moses, however, the social element finds a further development, and is interesting as taking up the spirit of the Father of the Faithful. Moses is the creator of the national spirit. He lifts religion from its somewhat selfish character in the patriarchal life to the higher and wider plane of a national and racial fellowship.<P>2. Intercessions of Moses:<P>The progressive character of the Divine leading of man is found thus in the development of the intercessory spirit, e.g. Moses\' prayer for the removal of plagues (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',15,25);">Ex 15:25</a>f); for water at Rephidim (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',17,4);">Ex 17:4</a>); for victory over Amalek (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',17,\'8-16\');">Ex 17:8-16</a>); prayer for the people after the golden calf (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',32,\'11-14\',\'21-34\');">Ex 32:11-14, 21-34</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',33,12);">33:12</a>f); after the renewal of the tables of stone (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',34,9);">Ex 34:9</a>); at the setting forth and stopping of the Ark (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',10,35);">Nu 10:35</a>f); after the burning at Taberah (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',11,2);">Nu 11:2</a>); for the healing of Miriam\'s leprosy (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',12,13);">Nu 12:13</a>); after the return of the spies (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',14,\'13-19\');">Nu 14:13-19</a>); after the destruction by serpents (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',21,7);">Nu 21:7</a>); for direction in the case of the daughters of Zelophehad (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',27,5);">Nu 27:5</a>); for a successor (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',27,15);">Nu 27:15</a>); recital of his prayer for the people for their entrance into Canaan (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',3,23);">De 3:23</a>f); recital of his prayer for the people after the worship of the golden calf (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',9,18);">De 9:18</a>); recital of prayers for the rebellious people (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',9,\'25-29\');">De 9:25-29</a>); a command to him who pays his third-year tithes to offer prayer for the nation (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',26,15);">De 26:15</a>); Moses\' final blessing of the tribes (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',33,\'1-\');">De 33</a>).<P>3. The Progress of Religion, Seen in Moses\' Intercessions:<P>This extensive series of the intercessory prayers of Moses forms a striking illustration of the growth of religion, represented by the founder of the national life of Israel. It is the history of an official, but it is also the history of a leader whose heart was filled with the intensest patriotism and regard for his fellows. None of these prayers are perfunctory. They are the vivid and passionate utterances of a man full of Divine enthusiasm and human affection. They are real prayers wrung from a great and devout soul on occasions of deep and critical importance. Apart from their importance in the history of Israel, they are a noble record of a great leader of men and servant of God.<P>4. Intercessory Prayer in Israel\'s Later History:<P>In the history of Joshua we find only the prayer for the people after the sin of Achan (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',7,\'6-9\');">Jos 7:6-9</a>), although the communications from God to Joshua are numerous. A faint intercessory note may be heard in Deborah\'s song (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',5,31);">Jud 5:31</a>) though it is almost silenced by the stern and warlike tone of the poem. Gideon\'s prayer History of seems to reecho something of the words of Moses (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',6,13);">Jud 6:13</a>), and accords with the national and religious spirit of the great leader who helped in the formation of the religious life of his people (see <a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',6,24);">Jud 6:24</a>), notwithstanding the evident lower plane on which he stood (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',8,27);">Jud 8:27</a>), which may account partially for the apostasy after his death (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',8,33);">Jud 8:33</a>f). Manoah\'s prayers (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',13,\'1-\');">Jud 13</a>) may be noted.<P>5. The Rise of Official Intercession:<P>(The satisfaction of Micah at securing a priest for his house, and the subsequent story, belong rather to the history of official intercession (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',18,\'1-\');">Jud 18</a>; see below), as also the inquiry of the people through Phinehas at Shiloh (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',20,27);">Jud 20:27</a>f), and the people\'s mourning and prayer (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',21,2);">Jud 21:2</a>f).)<P>6. Samuel as an Intercessor in His Functions as Judge, Priest and Prophet:<P>Samuel is the real successor of Moses, and in connection with his life intercession again appears more distinct and effective. Hannah\'s song, though chiefly of thankfulness, is not without the intercessory spirit (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',2,\'1-11\');">1Sa 2:1-11</a>). So also of Samuel\'s prayer at Mizpeh (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',7,5);">1Sa 7:5</a>), and the recognition by the people of Samuel\'s place (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',7,8);">1Sa 7:8</a>f; see also <a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',8,6,21);">1Sa 8:6, 21</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',10,\'17-25\');">10:17-25</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',12,19);">12:19</a>) (for the custom of inquiring of the Lord through a seer see <a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',9,\'6-10\');">1Sa 9:6-10</a>); Samuel\'s prayer for Saul (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',15,11);">1Sa 15:11</a>); Saul\'s failure to secure inquiry of God, even through intercession (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',28,6);">1Sa 28:6</a>); Saul\'s final appeal through the witch of Endor (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',28,\'7-20\');">1Sa 28:7-20</a>); David\'s prayer to God (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',7,18);">2Sa 7:18</a>); David\'s Judge, prayer for deliverance of the people from pestilence (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',24,17);">2Sa 24:17</a>); Solomon\'s prayer for wisdom to govern the people (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',3,\'5-15\');">1Ki 3:5-15</a>); Solomon\'s prayer at the dedication of the temple (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',8,\'12-61\');">1Ki 8:12-61</a>); Jeroboam\'s appeal to the man of God to pray for the healing of his hand (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',13,6);">1Ki 13:6</a>); Elijah\'s prayer for the widow\'s son (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',17,20);">1Ki 17:20</a>); Elijah\'s prayer for rain (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',18,42);">1Ki 18:42</a>); Elisha\'s prayer for the widow\'s son (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',4,33);">2Ki 4:33</a>); Elisha\'s prayer for the opening of the young man\'s eyes (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',6,17);">2Ki 6:17</a>); Hezekiah\'s appeal to Isaiah (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',19,4);">2Ki 19:4</a>); Hezekiah\'s prayer (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',19,\'14-19\');">2Ki 19:14-19</a>); Josiah\'s command for prayer concerning the "book that is found" (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',22,13);">2Ki 22:13</a>). In Ch we find David\'s prayer for his house (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',17,\'16-27\');">1Ch 17:16-27</a>); David\'s prayer for deliverance from the plague (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',21,17);">1Ch 21:17</a>); David\'s prayer for the people and for Solomon at the offering of gifts for the temple (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',29,\'10-19\');">1Ch 29:10-19</a>); Solomon\'s prayer at the consecration of the temple (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',6,\'1-42\');">2Ch 6:1-42</a>); Asa\'s prayer (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',14,11);">2Ch 14:11</a>); Jehoshaphat\'s prayer (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',20,\'5-13\');">2Ch 20:5-13</a>); Hezekiah\'s prayer for the people who had not prepared to eat the Passover (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',30,18);">2Ch 30:18</a>); Josiah\'s command for prayer concerning the book (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',34,21);">2Ch 34:21</a>). In the Prophets we note Ezra\'s prayer (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ezr\',9,\'5-15\');">Ezr 9:5-15</a>); Nehemiah\'s prayer (<a onClick="return mV(\'Neh\',1,\'5-11\');">Ne 1:5-11</a>); the prayer of the Levites for the nation (<a onClick="return mV(\'Neh\',9,\'4-38\');">Ne 9:4-38</a>).<P>7. Intercession in the Poetic Books:<P>The poetic books furnish a few examples of intercessory prayer: Job\'s intercession for his children (<a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',1,5);">Job 1:5</a>); Job\'s regret at the absence of intercession (<a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',16,21);">Job 16:21</a>); the Lord\'s command that Job should pray for his friends (<a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',42,8);">Job 42:8</a>). It is remarkable that the references to the Poetic intercession in the Psalms are few; but it must not be forgotten that the psalm is generally a lyrical expression of an intense subjective condition. This does not seem in the consciousness of Israel to have reached an altruistic development. The Psalms express very powerfully the sense of obligation to God, consciousness of sin, indignation against the sin of others. Occasionally the patriotic spirit leads to prayer for Israel; but only rarely does any deep sense of interest in the welfare of others appear to possess the hearts of Israel\'s singers. In <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',2,12);">Ps 2:12</a> there is a hint of the intercessory office of the Son, which reflects, perhaps, the growth of the Messianic spirit in the mind of Israel; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',20,\'1-\');">Ps 20</a> is intercessional; it is the prayer of a people for their king. In <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',25,22);">Ps 25:22</a> we find a prayer for the redemption of Israel, as in <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',28,9);">Ps 28:9</a>. In <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',35,13);">Ps 35:13</a> the Psalmist refers to his intercession for others. But the "prayer returned into mine own bosom," and the final issue of the prayer becomes rather denunciatory than intercessional. The penitence of <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',51,\'1-\');">Ps 51</a> rises into a note of prayer for the city (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',51,18);">51:18</a>). Sometimes (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',60,\'1-\');">Ps 60</a>, and perhaps <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',67,\'1-\');">Ps 67</a>), the prayer is not individual but for the community, though even there it is hardly intercession. A common necessity makes common prayer. In <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',69,\'1-\');">Ps 69</a> there is the recognition of the injury that folly and sin may do to others, and a kind of compensatory note of intercession is heard. <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',72,\'1-\');">Ps 72</a> is regarded by some as the royal father\'s prayer for his son and successor, but the reading of the title adopted by the Revised Version (British and American) takes even this psalm from the category of intercession. In Asaph\'s Masehil (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',74,\'1-\');">Ps 74</a>), intercession is more distinct; it is a prayer for the sanctuary and the people in their desolation and calamity. Asaph appears to have caught something of the spirit of Moses, as in <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',79,\'1-\');">Ps 79</a> he again prays for the deliverance of Jerusalem; while a faint echo of the intercessory plea for the nation is heard in Ethan\'s psalm (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',89,\'1-\');">Ps 89</a>). It sounds faintly in <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',106,\'1-\');">Ps 106</a>. In <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',122,\'1-\');">Ps 122</a> we seem to breathe a larger and more liberal spirit. It contains the appeal to pray for the peace of Jerusalem (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',122,6);">122:6</a>), as if the later thought of Israel had begun to expand beyond the mere limits of personal penitence, or desire for deliverance, or denunciation of the enemy. In one of the Songs of Degrees (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',125,\'1-\');">Ps 125</a>), there is the somewhat severely ethical prayer: "Do good, O Yahweh, unto those that are good." The yearning for the salvation of man as man has not yet been born. The Christ must come before the fullness of Divine love is shed abroad in the hearts even of the pious. This comparative absence of intercessory prayer from the service-book of Israel, and its collected expressions of spiritual experience, is instructive. We find continued references to those who needed prayer; but for the most part these references are descriptive of their wickedness, or denunciatory of their hostility to the Psalmist. The Book of Psalms is thus a striking commentary on the growth of Israel\'s spiritual life. Intense as it is in its perception of God and His claim on human righteousness, it is only when the supreme revelation of Divine love and the regard for universal man has appeared in the person of our Lord that the large and loving spirit which intercession signifies is found in the experience and expressions of the pious.<P>8. The Books of Wisdom:<P>In the Wisdom books there is little, if any, reference to intercession. But they deal rather with ethical character, and often on a merely providential and utilitarian basis. It is noticeable that the only reference to pleading a cause is said to be by the Lord Himself as against the injustice of man (<a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',22,23);">Pr 22:23</a>): "Yahweh will plead their (the poor\'s) cause." Action on behalf of others does not appear to have been very highly regarded by the current ethics of the Israelite. A kind of negative helpfulness is indicated in <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',24,28);">Pr 24:28</a>: "Be not a witness against thy neighbor without cause"; and it is significant that the office of advocate was not known among the Jews until they had come under the authority of Rome, when, not knowing the forms of Roman law, they were obliged to secure the aid of a Roman lawyer before the courts. Such practitioners were found in the provinces (Cic. pro Coelio c. 30); Tertullus (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',24,1);">Ac 24:1</a>) was such an advocate.<P>9. The Prophets\' Succession of Moses and Samuel:<P>In the prophetical books the note of intercession reappears. The prophet, though primarily a messenger from God to man, has also something of the character of the intercessor (see Isaiah\'s call, <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',6,\'1-\');">Isa 6</a>). <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',25,\'1-\');">Isa 25</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',26,\'1-\');">26</a> exhibit the intercessory characteristics. The request of Hezekiah for the prayers of Isaiah (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',37,4);">Isa 37:4</a>), and the answer of the Lord implied in <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',37,6);">37:6</A>, recall the constantly recurring service of Moses to the people. Hezekiah himself becomes an intercessor (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',37,\'14-21\');">37:14-21</A>). In <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',4,10);">Jer 4:10</a> intercession is mingled with the words of the messenger. The sin of the people hinders such prayers as were offered on their behalf (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',7,16);">Jer 7:16</a>; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',11,14);">Jer 11:14</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',14,11);">14:11</a>). Intercessory prayers are found in <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',10,23);">Jer 10:23</a>ff; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',14,7);">14:7</A>ff, <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',14,\'19-22\');">19-22</A>. The message of Zedekiah requesting Jeremiah\'s help is perhaps an instance of seer-inquiry as much as intercession (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',21,1);">Jer 21:1</a>f; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',9,19);">1Sa 9:19</a>). In <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',42,4);">Jer 42:4</a>, the prophet consents to the request of Johanan to seek the Lord on behalf of the people. The Book of Lamentations is naturally conceived in a more constantly recurring spirit of intercession. In the prophecies Jeremiah has been the messenger of God to the people. But, after the catastrophe, in his sorrow he appeals to God for mercy upon them (<a onClick="return mV(\'Lam\',2,20);">La 2:20</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Lam\',5,1,19);">5:1, 19</a>). Ezekiel in the same way is rather the seer of visions and the prophetic representative of God. Yet at times he appeals to God for the people (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',9,8);">Eze 9:8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',11,13);">11:13</a>). In Daniel we find the intercession of his three friends sought for in order to secure the revelation of the king\'s dream (<a onClick="return mV(\'Dan\',2,17);">Da 2:17</a>); and Daniel\'s prayer for Jerusalem and her people (<a onClick="return mV(\'Dan\',9,\'16-19\');">Da 9:16-19</a>).<P>In the Minor Prophets intercession rarely appears; even in the graphic pictures of Jonah, though the work itself shows the enlarging of the conception of God\'s relation to humanity outside of Israel, the prophet himself exhibits no tenderness and utters no pleas for the city against which he had been sent to prophesy, and receives the implied rebuke from the Lord for his want of sympathy, caring more for the perished gourd than for the vast population of Nineveh, whom the Lord, however, pitied and spared (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jon\',4,\'1-\');">Jon 4</a>). Even the sublime prayer of <a onClick="return mV(\'Hab\',3,\'1-\');">Hab 3</a> has only a suggestion of intercession. <a onClick="return mV(\'Zec\',6,13);">Zec 6:13</a> relieves the general severity of the prophetic message, consisting of the threatenings of judgment, by the gleam of the promise of a royal priest whose office was partially that of an intercessor, though the picture is darkened by the character of the priesthood and the people, whose services had been selfish, without mercy and compassion (<a onClick="return mV(\'Zec\',7,4,7);">Zec 7:4, 7</a>). Now the spirit of tenderness, the larger nature, the loving heart, are to be restored to Israel (<a onClick="return mV(\'Zec\',8,\'16-23\');">Zec 8:16-23</a>). Other nations than Israel will share in the mercy of God. In <a onClick="return mV(\'Mal\',2,7);">Mal 2:7</a> we find the priest rebuked for the loss of his intercessory character.<P>10. The Priest and Intercession:<P>How far intercession was regarded as a special duty of the priesthood it is not very easy to determine. The priestly office itself was undoubtedly intercessory. In the Priest and offering of the sacrifice even for the individual, and certainly in the national functions, both of the regular and the occasional ceremonies, the priest represented the individual or the community. In <a onClick="return mV(\'Joe\',2,17);">Joe 2:17</a> the priests are distinctly bidden to "weep between the porch and the altar, and let them say, Spare thy people, O Yahweh." <a onClick="return mV(\'Mal\',1,9);">Mal 1:9</a> appeals to them for intercession to God, and the graphic scene in 1Macc 7:33-38 shows the priests interceding on behalf of the people against Nicanor.<P>11. Intercession in the Gospels:<P>In the New Testament, all prayer necessarily takes a new form from its relation to our Lord, and in this intercessory prayer shares. At the outset, Christ teaches prayer on behalf of those "which despitefully use you" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',5,44);">Mt 5:44</a> the King James Version). How completely does this change the entire spirit of prayer! We breathe a new atmosphere of the higher revelation of love. The Lord\'s Prayer (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',6,\'9-13\');">Mt 6:9-13</a>) is of this character. Its initial word is social, domestic; prayer is the address of children to the Father. Even though some of the petitions are not original, yet their place in the prayer, and the general tone of the Master\'s teaching, exhibit the social and altruistic spirit, not so pervasive of the older dispensation. "Thy kingdom come" leads the Order of petitions, with its essentially intercessory character. The forgiveness of others, which is the measure and plea of our own forgiveness, brings even those who have wronged us upon the same plane as ourselves, and if the plea be genuine, how can we refuse to pray for them? And if for our enemies, then surely for our friends. In <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',7,11);">Mt 7:11</a>f; the good things sought of the Father are to be interpreted as among those that if we desire from others we should do to them. And from this spirit the intercessory prayer cannot be absent. We find the spirit of intercession in the pleas of those who sought Christ\'s help for their friends, which He was always so quick to recognize: the centurion for his servant (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',8,13);">Mt 8:13</a>); the friends of the paralytic (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',9,\'2-6\');">Mt 9:2-6</a>), where the miracle was wrought on the ground of the friends\' faith. Of a similar character are the requests of the woman for her child and the Lord\'s response (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',15,28);">Mt 15:28</a>); of the man for his lunatic son (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',17,\'14-21\');">Mt 17:14-21</a>). There is the suggestion of the intercessory spirit in the law of trespass, specifically followed by the promise of the answer to the prayer of the two or three, agreed and in fellowship (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',18,\'15-20\');">Mt 18:15-20</a>), with the immediately attached precepts of forgiveness (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',18,\'21-35\');">Mt 18:21-35</a>). A remarkable instance of intercession is recorded in <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',20,\'20-23\');">Mt 20:20-23</a>, where the mother of Zebedee\'s sons makes a request on behalf of her children; the added expression, "worshipping him," raises the occasion into one of intercessory prayer. our Lord\'s rebuke is not to the prayer, but to its lack of wisdom.<P>It is needless to review the cases in the other Gospels. But the statement of <a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',6,5);">Mr 6:5</a>f; that Christ could not perform mighty works because of unbelief, sheds a flood of light upon one of the important conditions of successful intercession, when contrasted with the healing conditioned by the faith of others than the healed. One of the most distinct examples of intercessory prayer is that of the Lord\'s intercession for Peter (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',22,31);">Lu 22:31</a>f), and for those who crucified Him (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',23,34);">Lu 23:34</a>). The place of intercession in the work of Christ is seen clearly in our Lord\'s intercessory prayer (see <a href="study/isbe/search.html?string=INTERCESSION+OF+CHRIST">INTERCESSION OF CHRIST</a>), where it is commanded by definite precept and promise of acceptance. The promise of the answer to prayer in the name of Christ is very definite (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',16,24);">Joh 16:24</a>). Christ\'s high-priestly prayer is the sublimest height of prayer to God and is intercessory throughout (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',17,\'1-\');">Joh 17</a>); <a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',16,26);">Joh 16:26</a> does not, as some have held, deny His intercession for His disciples; it only throws open the approach to God Himself.<P>12. Intercessory Prayers of the Church:<P>Ac introduces us to the working of the fresh elements which Christ gave to life. Hence, the prayers of the church become Christian prayers, involving the wider outlook on others and on the world at large which Christianity has bestowed on men. The prayer of the assembled believers upon the liberation of the apostles breathes this spirit (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',4,\'24-30\');">Ac 4:24-30</a>). The consecrating prayer for the seven was probably intercessory (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',6,6);">Ac 6:6</a>; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',1,24);">Ac 1:24</a>). How pathetic is the plea of Stephen for his murderers (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',7,60);">Ac 7:60</a>)! How natural is intercession (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',8,24);">Ac 8:24</a>)! Peter at Joppa (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',9,40);">Ac 9:40</a>); the church making prayer with-out ceasing for Peter (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',12,5,12);">Ac 12:5, 12</a>); the prayer for Barnabas and Saul at Antioch (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',13,3);">Ac 13:3</a>); Paul and Barnabas praying for the churches (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',14,23);">Ac 14:23</a>); the church at Antioch commending Paul and Silas to the grace of God (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',15,40);">Ac 15:40</a>); Paul and the elders of Ephesus (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',20,36);">Ac 20:36</a>), are all examples, more or less defined, of intercessory prayer.<P>13. Intercession Found in the Epistles:<P>In the Epistles we may expect to find intercession more distinctly filled with the relation of prayer through Christ. Paul gives us many examples in his Epistles: for the Romans (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',1,9);">Ro 1:9</a>); the Spirit\'s interceding (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',8,27);">8:27</A>); Paul\'s prayer for his race (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',10,1);">10:1</A>); his request for prayers (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',15,30);">15:30</A>); the help that he found from the prayer of his friends (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',1,11);">2Co 1:11</a>); prayer for the Corinthian church (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',13,7);">2Co 13:7</a>); for the Ephesians (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eph\',1,\'16-23\');">Eph 1:16-23</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eph\',3,\'14-21\');">3:14-21</a>; see also <a onClick="return mV(\'Eph\',6,18);">Eph 6:18</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Phl\',1,\'3-11\',19);">Php 1:3-11, 19</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Col\',1,3,9);">Col 1:3, 9</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Col\',4,3);">4:3</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Th\',1,2);">1Th 1:2</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Th\',5,23,25);">5:23, 25</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Th\',1,2);">2Th 1:2</a>); a definite command that intercession be made for all men and for kings and those in authority (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ti\',2,1,2);">1Ti 2:1-2</a>); his prayer for Timothy (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ti\',1,3);">2Ti 1:3</a>); for Philemon (<a onClick="return mV(\'Phm\',1,4);">1:4</A>); and prayer to be offered for the sick by the elders of the church (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jam\',5,\'14-18\');">Jas 5:14-18</a> see also <a onClick="return mV(\'Hbr\',13,\'18-21\');">Heb 13:18-21</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Jo\',5,14);">1Joh 5:14</a>).<P>II. Intercession Perfected in Christ\'s Office and in the Church.<P>This review of the intercession of the Scriptures prepares us for the development of a specific office of intercession, perfectly realized in Christ. We have seen Moses complying with the people\'s request to represent them before God. In a large and generous spirit the leader of Israel intercedes with God for his nation. It was natural that this striking example of intercessory prayer should be followed by other leaders, and that the gradually developed system of religious worship should furnish the conception of the priest, and especially the high priest, as the intercessor for those who came to the sacrifice. This was particularly the significance of the great Day of Atonement, when after offering for himself, the high priest offered the sacrifice for the whole people. This official act, however, does not do away with the intercessory character of prayer as offered by men. We have seen how it runs through the whole history of Israel. But it is found much more distinctly in the Christian life and apparently in the practice of the Christian assembly itself. Paul continually refers to his own intercessory prayers, and seeks for a similar service on his own behalf from those to whom he writes. Intercession is thus based upon the natural tendency of the heart filled by love and a deep sympathetic sense of relation to others. Christ\'s intercessory prayer is the highest example and pattern of this form of prayer. His intercessions for His disciples, for His crucifiers, are recorded, and the sacred record rises to the supreme height in the prayer of <a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',17,\'1-\');">Joh 17</a>. In this prayer the following characteristics are to be found:<P>(1) It is based upon the intimate relation of Jesus to the Father. This gives to such prayer its justification; may it be said, its right.<P>(2) It follows the completest fulfillment of duty. It is not the mere expression of desire, even for others. It is the crown of effort on their behalf. He has revealed God to His disciples. He has given to them God\'s words; therefore He prays for them (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',17,6,7,8,9);">Joh 17:6, 7-9</a>).<P>(3) It recognizes the Divine, unbroken relation to the object of the prayer: "I am no more in the world, and these are in the world, and I come to Thee. Holy Father, keep," etc. (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',17,11);">17:11</A>).<P>(4) The supreme end of the prayer is salvation from the evil of the world (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',17,15);">17:15</A>).<P>(5) The wide sweep of the prayer and its chief objects<74>unity with God, and the presence with Christ, and the indwelling of the Divine love. The prayer is a model for all intercessory prayer.<P>III. Intercession of the Holy Spirit.<P>In connection with the subject of intercession, there arises a most interesting question as to whether the Holy Spirit is not presented in Scriptures as an intercessor. The text in which the doctrine seems to be taught is that of <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',8,26);">Ro 8:26</a> f: "In like manner the Spirit also helpeth our infirmity: for we know not how to pray as we ought; but the Spirit himself maketh intercession for us with groanings which cannot be uttered; and he that searcheth the hearts knoweth what is the mind of the Spirit, because he maketh intercession for the saints according to the will of God." By far the larger number of expositors have understood by the Spirit, the Holy Spirit. The older commentators, in general, refer to the Holy Spirit. Tholuck, Ewald, Philippi, Meyer, most of the American theologians and English commentators, as Shedd, Alford, Jowett, Wordsworth, interpret it in the same way. Lange and Olshausen refer it to the human spirit. Undoubtedly, the "groanings" have led to the denial of the reference to the Holy Spirit. But the very form of the word translated "helpeth" indicates cooperation, and this must be of something other than the spirit of man himself. The undoubted difficulties of the passage, which are strongly urged by Lange (see Lange\'s Commentary on <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',8,26);">Ro 8:26</a>), must be acknowledged. At the same time the statement seems to be very clear and definite. An explanation has been given that the Holy Spirit is here referred to as dwelling in us, and thus making intercession. The Divine Spirit is said to be a Spirit of supplication (<a onClick="return mV(\'Zec\',12,10);">Zec 12:10</a>). The distinction which is made between the intercession of Christ in heaven in His priestly office and that of the Holy Spirit interceding within the souls of believers, referred to by Shedd (see Commentary on Romans), must be carefully used, for if pressed to its extreme it would lead to the materialization and localization of the Divine nature. Moreover, may not the intercession of our Lord be regarded as being partially exemplified in that of the Spirit whom He has declared to be His agent and representative? If Christ dwells in believers by His Spirit, His intercession, especially if subjective in and with their spirits, may properly be described as the intercession of the Holy Ghost.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=INTERCESSION+OF+CHRIST">INTERCESSION OF CHRIST</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=PRAYERS+OF+CHRIST">PRAYERS OF CHRIST</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=CHRIST,+OFFICES+OF">OFFICES OF CHRIST</a>`14';
isbe[4632]='Intercession of Christ`The general conception of our Lord\'s mediatorial office is specially summed up in His intercession in which He appears in His high-priestly office, and also as interceding with the Father on behalf of that humanity whose cause He had espoused.<P>1. Christ\'s Intercession Viewed in Its Priestly Aspect:<P>The function of priesthood as developed under Judaism involved the position of mediation between man and God. The priest represented man, and on man\'s behalf approached God; thus he offered sacrifice, interceded and gave to the offerer whom he represented the benediction and expression of the Divine acceptance. (For the various forms of these offerings, see special articles [<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=OFFER;+OFFERING">Offer; Offering</A>]) As in sacrifice, so in the work of Christ, we find the proprietary rights of the offerer in the sacrifice. For man, Christ as one with man, and yet in His own personal right, offers Himself (see <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',5,\'1-\');">Ro 5</a>; and compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Gal\',4,5);">Ga 4:5</a> with <a onClick="return mV(\'Hbr\',2,11);">Heb 2:11</a>). There was also the transfer of guilt and its conditions, typically by laying the hand on the head of the animal, which then bore the sins of the offerer and was presented to God by the priest. The acknowledgment of sin and the surrender to God is completely fulfilled in Christ\'s offering of Himself, and His death (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',3,2,8,13);">Le 3:2, 8, 13</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',16,21);">16:21</a>; with <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',53,6);">Isa 53:6</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',5,21);">2Co 5:21</a>). our Lord\'s intercessory quality in the sacrifice of Himself is not only indicated by the imputation of guilt to Him as representing the sinner, but also in the victory of His life over death, which is then given to man in God\'s acceptance of His representative and substitute.<P>In the Epistle to the Hebrews, the intercessory character of our Lord\'s high-priestly office is transferred to the heavenly condition and work of Christ, where the relation of Christ\'s work to man\'s condition is regarded as being still continued in the heavenly place (see <a onClick="return mV(\'Hbr\',9,\'11-28\');">Heb 9:11-28</a>). This entrance into heaven is once for all, and in the person of the high priest the way is open to the very presence of God. From one point of view (<a onClick="return mV(\'Hbr\',10,12);">Heb 10:12</a>) the priestly service of the Lord was concluded and gathered up into His kingly office (<a onClick="return mV(\'Hbr\',10,13,\'14-18\');">Heb 10:13, 14-18</a>). But from another point of view, we ourselves are bidden to enter into the Holiest Place; as if in union with Christ we too become a kingly priesthood (<a onClick="return mV(\'Hbr\',10,\'19-22\');">Heb 10:19-22</a>; and compare <a onClick="return mV(\'1Pe\',2,9);">1Pe 2:9</a>).<P>It must not be forgotten, however, that this right of entrance into the most Holy Place is one that depends entirely upon our vital union with Christ, He appears in heaven for us and we with Him, and in this sense He fulfills the second duty of His high-priestly office as intercessor, with the added conception drawn from the legal advocacy of the Roman court. The term translated "Advocate" in <a onClick="return mV(\'1Jo\',2,2);">1Joh 2:2</a> is parakletos, which in <a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',14,16);">Joh 14:16</a> is translated "Comforter." The word is of familiar use in Greek for the legal advocate or patronus who appeared on behalf of his client. Thus, in the double sense of priestly and legal representative, our Lord is our intercessor in Heaven.<P>Of the modes in which Christ carries out His intercessory office, we can have no knowledge except so far as we may fairly deduce them from the phraseology and suggested ideas of Scripture. As high priest, it may surely be right for us to aid our weak faith by assuring ourselves that our Lord pleads for us, while at the same time we must be careful not to deprave our thought concerning the glorified Lord by the metaphors and analogies of earthly relationship.<P>The intercessory work of Christ may thus be represented: He represents man before God in His perfect nature, His exalted office and His completed work. The Scripture word for this is (<a onClick="return mV(\'Hbr\',9,24);">Heb 9:24</a>) "to appear before the face of God for us." There is also an active intercession. This is the office of our Lord as advocate or parakletos. That this conveys some relation to the aid which one who has broken the law receives from an advocate cannot be overlooked, and we find Christ\'s intercession in this aspect brought into connection with the texts which refer to justification and its allied ideas (see <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',8,34);">Ro 8:34</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Jo\',2,1);">1Joh 2:1</a>).<P>2. Christ\'s Intercessory Work from the Standpoint of Prayer:<P>In <a href="study/isbe/search.html?string=PRAYERS+OF+CHRIST">PRAYERS OF CHRIST</a> (which see), the intercessory character of many of our Lord\'s prayers, and especially that of <a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',17,\'1-\');">Joh 17</a>, is considered. And it has been impossible for Christian thought to divest itself of the idea that the heavenly intercession of Christ is of the order of prayer. It is impossible for us to know; and even if Christ now prays to the Father, it can be in no way analogous to earthly prayers. The thought of some portion of Christendom distinctly combined prayer in the heavenly work of the Lord. There is danger in extreme views. Scriptural expressions must not be driven too far, and, on the other hand, they must not be emptied of all their contents. Modern Protestant teaching has, in its protest against a merely physical conception of our Lord\'s state and occupation in heaven, almost sublimed reality from His intercessory work. In Lutheran teaching the intercession of our Lord was said to be "vocal," "verbal" and "oral." It has been well remarked that such forms of prayer require flesh and blood, and naturally the teachers of the Reformed churches, for the most part, have contented themselves (as for example Hodge, Syst. Theol., II, 593) with the declaration that "the intercession of Christ includes: (1) His appearing before God in our behalf, as the sacrifice for our sins, as our high priest, on the ground of whose work we receive the remission of our sins, the gift of the Holy Spirit, and all needed good; (2) defense against the sentence of the law and the charges of Satan, who is the great accuser; (3) His offering Himself as our surety, not only that the demands of justice shall be shown to be satisfied, but that His people shall be obedient and faithful; (4) the oblation of the persons of the redeemed, sanctifying their prayers, and all their services, rendering them acceptable to God, through the savor of his own merits."<P>Even this expression of the elements which constitute the intercession of the Lord, cautious and spiritual as it is in its application to Christian thought and worship, must be carefully guarded from a too complete and materialistic use. Without this care, worship and devout thought may become degraded and fall into the mechanical forms by which our Lord\'s position of intercessor has been reduced to very little more than an imaginative and spectacular process which goes on in some heavenly place. It must not be forgotten that the metaphorical and symbolic origin of the ideas which constitute Christ\'s intercession is always in danger of dominating and materializing the spiritual reality of His intercessional office.``14';
isbe[4633]='Interest`in\'-ter-est (neshekh, mashsha\'; tokos): The Hebrew word neshekh is from a root which means "to bite"; thus interest is "something bitten off." The other word, mashsa\', means "lending on interest." The Greek term is from the root tikto, "to produce" or "beget," hence, interest is something begotten or produced by money. The Hebrew words are usually translated "usury," but this meant the same as interest, all interest being reckoned as usury.<P>Long before Abraham\'s time money had been loaned at a fixed rate of interest in Babylonia and almost certainly in Egypt. The Code of Hammurabi gives regulations regarding the lending and borrowing of money, the usual interest being 20 percent. Sometimes it was only 11 2//3 and 13 1/3, as shown by contract tablets. In one case, if the loan was not paid in two months, 18 per cent interest would be charged. Corn (grain), dates, onions, etc., were loaned at interest. Thus Moses and Israel would be familiar with commercial loans and interest. In Israel there was no system of credit or commercial loans in Moses\' time and after. A poor man borrowed because he was poor. The law of Moses (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',22,25);">Ex 22:25</a>) forbade loaning at interest. There was to be no creditor and no taker of interest among them (<a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',25,36,37);">Le 25:36-37</a>). Deuteronomy permits them to lend on interest to a foreigner (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',23,19,20);">De 23:19-20</a>), but not to a brother Israelite. That this was considered the proper thing in Israel for centuries is seen in <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',15,5);">Ps 15:5</a>, while <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',28,8);">Pr 28:8</a> implies that it was an unusual thing, interest being generally exacted and profit made. Ezekiel condemns it as a heinous sin (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',18,8,13,17);">Eze 18:8, 13, 17</a>) and holds up the ideal of righteousness as not taking interest (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',22,12);">22:12</A>). <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',24,2);">Isa 24:2</a> implies that it was a business in that age, the lender and borrower being social types. Jeremiah implies that there was not always the best feeling between lenders and borrowers (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',15,10);">15:10</A>). According to <a onClick="return mV(\'Neh\',5,7,10);">Ne 5:7, 10</a>, rich Jews were lending to others and exacting heavy interest. Nehemiah condemns such conduct and forbids its continuance, citing himself as an example of lending without interest. The lenders restored 1 percent of that exacted.<P>In the New Testament, references to interest occur in the parable of the Pounds (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',19,23);">Lu 19:23</a>) and of the Talents (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',25,27);">Mt 25:27</a>). Here the men were expected to put their master\'s money out at interest, and condemnation followed the failure to do so. Thus the principle of receiving interest is not condemned in the Old Testament, only it was not to be taken from a brother Israelite. In the New Testament it is distinctly encouraged.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=USURY">USURY</a>`146';
isbe[4634]='Intermeddle`in-ter-med\'-\'-l (\'arabh, "to mix up (self) with something," "mingle in," "share," "take interest in"): The word occurs only once (<a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',14,10);">Pr 14:10</a>) in a passage descriptive of "the ultimate solitude of each man\'s soul at all times." "The heart knoweth its own bitterness."<P>"Nor even the tenderest heart, and next our own, Knows half the reasons why we smile and sigh."<P>(Compare <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',8,38);">1Ki 8:38</a>.) Something there is in every sorrow which no one else can share. "And a stranger doth not intermeddle with its joy," not necessarily in an interfering or any offensive way, but simply does not share or take any interest in the other\'s joy.<P>For "intermeddleth with" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',18,1);">Pr 18:1</a> the King James Version), the Revised Version (British and American) gives "rageth against" (margin "quarrelleth with").``91';
isbe[4635]='Intermediate, State`in-ter-me\'-di-at.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ESCHATOLOGY+OF+THE+NEW+TESTAMENT,+I-V">ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT</a>`1';
isbe[4636]='Interpretation`in-tur-pre-ta\'-shun:<P>1. General Principles:<P>Is a generic term and may refer to any work of literature. Referred specifically to the sacred Scriptures, the science of interpretation is generally known as hermeneutics, while the practical application of the principles of this science is exegesis. In nearly all cases, interpretation has in mind the thoughts of another, and then, further, these thoughts expressed in another language than that of the interpreter. In this sense it is used in Biblical research. A person has interpreted the thoughts of another when he has in his own mind a correct reproduction or photograph of the thought as it was conceived in the mind of the original writer or speaker. It is accordingly a purely reproductive process, involving no originality of thought on the part of the interpreter. If the latter adds anything of his own it is eisegesis and not exegesis. The moment the Bible student has in his own mind what was in the mind of the author or authors of the Biblical books when these were written, he has interpreted the thought of the Scriptures.<P>The interpretation of any specimen of literature will depend on the character of the work under consideration. A piece of poetry and a chapter of history will not be interpreted according to the same principles or rules. Particular rules that are legitimate in the explanation of a work of fiction would be entirely out of place in dealing with a record of facts. Accordingly, the rules of the correct interpretation of the Scriptures will depend upon the character of these writings themselves, and the principles which an interpreter will employ in his interpretation of the Scriptures will be in harmony with his ideas of what the Scriptures are as to origin, character, history, etc. In the nature of the case the dogmatical stand of the interpreter will materially influence his hermeneutics and exegesis. In the legitimate sense of the term, every interpreter of the Bible is "prejudiced," i.e. is guided by certain principles which he holds antecedently to his work of interpretation. If the modern advanced critic is right in maintaining that the Biblical books do not differ in kind or character from the religious books of other ancient peoples, such as the Indians or the Persians, then the same principles that he applies in the case of the Rig Veda or the Zend Avesta he will employ also in his exposition of the Scriptures. If, on the other hand, the Bible is for him a unique collection of writings, Divinely inspired and a revelation from the source of all truth, the Bible student will hesitate long before accepting contradictions, errors, mistakes, etc., in the Scriptures.<P>2. Special Principles:<P>The Scriptures are a Divine and human product combined. That the holy men of God wrote as they were moved by the Spirit is the claim of the Scriptures themselves. Just where the line of demarcation is to be drawn between the human and the Divine factors in the production of the sacred Scriptures materially affects the principles of interpreting these writings (see <a href="study/isbe/search.html?string=INSPIRATION">INSPIRATION</a>). That the human factor was sufficiently potent to shape the form of thought in the Scriptures is evident on all hands. Paul does not write as Peter does, nor John as James; the individuality of the writer of the different books appears not only in the style, choice of words, etc., but in the whole form of thought also. There are such things as a Pauline, a Johannine and a Petrine type of Christian thought, although there is only one body of Christian truth underlying all types. Insofar as the Bible is exactly like other books, it must be interpreted as we do other works of literature. The Scriptures are written in Hebrew and in Greek, and the principles of forms and of syntax that would apply to the explanation of other works written in these languages and under these circumstances must be applied to the Old Testament and New Testament also. Again, the Bible is written for men, and its thoughts are those of mankind and not of angels or creatures of a different or higher spiritual or intellectual character; and accordingly there is no specifically Biblical logic, or rhetoric, or grammar. The laws of thought and of the interpretation of thought in these matters pertain to the Bible as they do to other writings.<P>But in regard to the material contents of the Scriptures, matters are different and the principles of interpretation must be different. God is the author of the Scriptures which He has given through human agencies. Hence, the contents of the Scriptures, to a great extent, must be far above the ordinary concepts of the human mind. When John declares that God so loved the world that He gave His only begotten Son to redeem it, the interpreter does not do justice to the writer if he finds in the word "God" only the general philosophical conception of the Deity and not that God who is our Father through Christ; for it was the latter thought that was in the mind of the writer when he penned these words. Thus, too, it is a false interpretation to find in "Our Father" anything but this specifically Biblical conception of God, nor is it possible for anybody but a believing Christian to utter this prayer (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',6,9);">Mt 6:9</a>) in the sense which Christ, who taught it to His disciples, intended.<P>Again, the example of Christ and His disciples in their treatment of the Old Testament teaches the principle that the ipse dixit of a Scriptural passage is to be interpreted as decisive as to its meaning. In the about 400 citations from the Old Testament found in the New Testament, there is not one in which the mere "It is written" is not regarded as settling its meaning. Whatever may be a Bible student\'s theory of inspiration, the teachings and the examples of interpretation found in the Scriptures are in perfect. harmony in this matter.<P>These latter facts, too, show that in the interpretation of the Scriptures principles must be applied that are not applicable in the explanation of other books. As God is the author of the Scriptures He may have had, and, as a matter of fact, in certain cases did have in mind more than the human agents through whom He spoke did themselves understand. The fact that, in the New Testament, persons like Aaron and David, institutions like the law, the sacrificial system, the priesthood and the like, are interpreted as typical of persons and things under the New Covenant shows that the true significance, e.g. of the Levitical system, can be found only when studied in the light of the New Testament fulfillment.<P>Again, the principle of parallelism, not for illustrative but for argumentative purposes, is a rule that can, in the nature of the case, be applied to the interpretation of the Scriptures alone and not elsewhere. As the Scriptures represent one body of truth, though in a kaleidoscopic variety of forms, a statement on a particular subject in one place can be accepted as in harmony with a statement on the same subject elsewhere. In short, in all of those characteristics in which the Scriptures are unlike other literary productions, the principles of interpretation of the Scriptures must also be unlike those employed in other cases.<P>3. Historical Data:<P>Owing chiefly to the dogmatical basis of hermeneutics as a science, there has been a great divergence of views in the history of the church as to the proper methods of interpretation. It is one of the characteristic and instructive features of the New Testament writers that they absolutely refrain from the allegorical method of interpretation current in those times, particularly in the writings of Philo. Not even <a onClick="return mV(\'Gal\',4,22);">Ga 4:22</a>, correctly understood, is an exception, since this, if an allegorical interpretation at all, is an argumentum ad hominem. The sober and grammatical method of interpretation in the New Testament writers stands out, too, in bold and creditable contrast to that of the early Christian exegetes, even of Origen. Only the Syrian fathers seemed to be an exception to the fantasies of the allegorical methods. The Middle Ages produced nothing new in this sphere; but the Reformation, with its formal principle that the Bible and the Bible alone is the rule of faith and life, made the correct grammatical interpretation of the Scriptures practically a matter of necessity. In modern times, not at all prolific in scientific discussions of hermeneutical principles and practices, the exegetical methods of different interpreters are chiefly controlled by their views as to the origin and character of the Scriptural books, particularly in regard to their inspiration.<P>LITERATURE.<P>Terry, Biblical Hermeneutics, New York, 1884. Here the literature is fully given, as also in Weidner\'s Theological Encyclopedia, I, 266ff.``159';
isbe[4637]='Interpretation of Tongues``<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=TONGUES,+INTERPRETATION,+OF">TONGUES, INTERPRETATION OF</a>`1';
isbe[4638]='Interrogation`in-ter-o-ga\'-shun (eperotema): This word is not found at all in the King James Version, and once only in the American Standard Revised Version (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Pe\',3,21);">1Pe 3:21</a>), where it replaces the word "answer" of the King James Version. This change according to Alford and Bengel is correct. "The interrogation of a good conscience" may refer to the question asked of a convert before baptism (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',8,37);">Ac 8:37</a>), or the appeal of the convert to God (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'1Jo\',3,\'20-21\');">1Joh 3:20-21</a>). The opportunity to do this was given in baptism.``1';
isbe[4639]='Intreat; Intreaty; (Entreat)`in-tret\', in-tret\'-i: The two forms are derived from the same verb. In 1611 the spelling was indifferently "intreat" or "entreat." In editions of the King James Version since 1760 "intreat" is used in the sense of "to beg"; "entreat" in the sense of "deal with." As examples of "intreat" see <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',8,8);">Ex 8:8</a>, "Intreat the Lord" (tsa\'aq); <a onClick="return mV(\'Rth\',1,16);">Ru 1:16</a>, "Intreat me not to leave thee" (pagha\'); <a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',8,4);">2Co 8:4</a>, "praying us with much entreaty" paraklesis). In <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',25,21);">Ge 25:21</a> "intreat" is used to indicate the success of a petition. For entreat see <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',12,16);">Ge 12:16</a>, "He entreated Abraham well"; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',27,3);">Ac 27:3</a>, "And Julius courteously entreated Paul" (philanthropos chresamenos, literally, "to use in a philanthropic way"); compare also <a onClick="return mV(\'Jam\',3,17);">Jas 3:17</a>, where eupeithes, literally, "easily persuaded," is translated "easy to be entreated."<P>The Revised Version changes all passages of the King James Version where "intreat" is found to "entreat," with the exception of those mentioned below. The meaning of "entreat" is "to ask," "to beseech," "to supplicate": <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',19,17);">Job 19:17</a> reads "and my supplication to the children" (hannothi, the King James Version "though I entreated for the children," the Revised Version, margin "I make supplication"). <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',15,11);">Jer 15:11</a> reads, "I will cause the enemy to make supplication" (hiphga\'ti), instead, the King James Version "I will cause the enemy to entreat" (the Revised Version margin "I will intercede for thee with the enemy"). <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ti\',5,1);">1Ti 5:1</a> changes the King James Version "intreat" to "exhort." <a onClick="return mV(\'Phl\',4,3);">Php 4:3</a> renders the King James Version "entreat" by "beseech."``121';
isbe[4640]='Inward Man`in\'-werd: A Pauline term, nearly identical with the "hidden man of the heart" (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Pe\',3,4);">1Pe 3:4</a>). The Greek original, ho eso (also esothen) anthropos (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',7,22);">Ro 7:22</a>) is lexigraphically defined "the internal man," i.e. "soul," "conscience." It is the immaterial part of man<61>mind, spirit<69>in distinction from the "outward man" which "perishes" (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',4,16);">2Co 4:16</a> the King James Version). As the seat of spiritual influences it is the sphere in which the Holy Spirit does His renewing and saving work (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eph\',3,16);">Eph 3:16</a>). The term "inward man" cannot be used interchangeably with "the new man," for it may still be "corrupt," and subject to "vanity" and "alienated from the life of God." Briefly stated, it is mind, soul, spirit<69>God\'s image in man<61>man\'s higher nature, intellectual, moral, and spiritual.``139';
isbe[4641]='Inward Part`A symbolic expression in the Old Testament represented by three Hebrew words: chedher, "chamber," hence, inmost bowels or breast; tuchoth, "the reins"; qerebh, "midst," "middle," hence, heart. Once in the New Testament (esothen, "from within," <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',11,39);">Lu 11:39</a>). The viscera (heart, liver, kidneys) were supposed by the ancients to be the seat of the mind, feelings, affections: the highest organs of the psyche, "the soul." The term includes the intellect ("wisdom in the inward parts," <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',38,36);">Job 38:36</a>); the moral nature ("inward part is very wickedness," <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',5,9);">Ps 5:9</a>); the spiritual ("my law in their inward parts," <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',31,33);">Jer 31:33</a>). Its adverbial equivalent in Biblical use is "inwardly." <a href="study/isbe/search.html?string=INWARD+MAN">INWARD MAN</A> (which see) is identical in meaning.``139';
isbe[4642]='Iob`yob (yobh; the King James Version Job): Third son of Issachar (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',46,13);">Ge 46:13</a>). In parallel passages (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',26,24);">Nu 26:24</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',7,1);">1Ch 7:1</a>) the name is Jashub (yashubh), which the versions in Genesis also support as the correct form.``1';
isbe[4643]='Iphdeiah`if-de\'-ya (yiphdeyah, "Yah redeems"; the King James Version Iphedeiah): A descendant of Benjamin (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',8,25);">1Ch 8:25</a>).``1';
isbe[4644]='Iphtah`if\'-ta (yiphtach; the King James Version Jiphtah): An unidentified town in the Shephelah of Judah, named with Libnab, Ether and Ashan (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',15,43);">Jos 15:43</a>).``1';
isbe[4645]='Iphtah-El`if\'-ta-el (yiphtach-\'el; the King James Version Jiphtah-el): The valley of Iphtah-el lay on the north border of Zebulun (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',19,14,27);">Jos 19:14, 27</a>). Northwest of the plain of el-Battauf stands a steep hill, connected only by a low saddle with the hills on the north. The name Tell Jefat suggests the Jotapata of Josephus (BJ, III, vi, i; vii, i, etc.), and the place answers well to his description. It probably corresponds to the ancient Iphtah-el. In that case the valley is most probably that which begins at Tell Jefat, passes round the south of Jebel Kaukab, and, as Wady \'Abellin, opens on the plain of Acre.``54';
isbe[4646]='Ir`ir (\'ir): A descendant of Benjamin (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',7,12);">1Ch 7:12</a>), called Iri in <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',7,7);">1Ch 7:7</a>.``1';
isbe[4647]='Ir-Ha-Heres`ir-ha-he\'-rez (\'ir haherec, according to the Massoretic Text, Aquila, Theodotion, Septuagint, the King James Version and the Revised Version (British and American); according to some Hebrew manuscripts, Symmachus, and the Vulgate, \'ir ha-cherec): A city of Egypt referred to in <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',19,18);">Isa 19:18</a>. Jewish quarrels concerning the temple which Onias built in Egypt have most probably been responsible for the altering of the texts of some of the early manuscripts, and it is not now possible to determine absolutely which have been altered and which accord with the original. This difference in manuscripts gives rise to different opinions among authorities here to be noted. Most of the discussion of this name arises from this uncertainty and is hence rather profitless.<P>The starting-point of any proper discussion of Ir-ha-h is that the words are by Isaiah and that they are prophecy, predictive prophecy. They belong to that portion of the prophecies of Isaiah which by nearly all critics is allowed to the great prophet. Nothing but unfounded speculation or an unwillingness to admit that there is any predictive prophecy can call in question Isaiah\'s authorship of these words. Then the sense of the passage in which these words occur imperatively demands that they be accounted predictive prophecy. Isaiah plainly refers to the future, "shall be called"; and makes a definite statement concerning what shall take place in the future (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',19,\'18-24\');">19:18-24</A>). The reality of predictive prophecy may be discussed by those so inclined, but that the intention of the author here was to utter predictive prophecy does not seem to be open to question. For the verification of this prediction by its fulfillment in history we shall inquire concerning:<P>(1) the times intended: "that day";<P>(2) the "five cities";<P>(3) "Ir-ha-heres."<P>1. The Times Intended: "That Day":<P>The prophet gives a fairly specific description of "that day." It was at least to begin when "there shall be five cities in the land of Egypt that speak the language of Canaan, and swear to Yahweh of hosts" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',19,18);">Isa 19:18</a>), and "In that day shall there be an altar to Yahweh in the midst of the land of Egypt, and a pillar at the border thereof to Yahweh" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',19,19);">Isa 19:19</a>). There was to be also some inroad made upon the heathenism of Egypt by the message of the Lord (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',19,21);">Isa 19:21</a>f), and about that time a deliverer should arise in Egypt (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',19,20);">Isa 19:20</a>), and all this should take place before the power of the land of Assyria should pass away (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',19,23);">Isa 19:23</a>f) .<P>2. The "Five Cities":<P>The first historical fulfillment of these words is found at the period when Onias built his imitation of the Temple of Jerusalem at the place called by the Greeks Leontopolis (Tell el-Yehudiyeh), and the worship of Yahweh was set up at Elephantine, and the Jews were a great power at Alexandria and at Tahpanhes. While any of these latter three might have contained the "pillar," the "altar" would thus be either at Leontopolis or the other one of the "five cities" which cannot be named with much probability. The great deliverer would seem to be Alexander. Some think that the conversion of the Egyptians indicated in <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',19,21,22);">Isa 19:21-22</a> is furthered, though still not completed, in the Christian invasion of the 1st century, and again in the success of modern Christian missions in Egypt.<P>3. "Ir-ha-heres":<P>It will be seen that it does not follow from what has been said that Leontopolis was Ir-ha-h as some seem to think. It is not said by the prophet that the place where was the "altar" was called Ir-ha-h, even if it were certain that the altar was at Leontopolis. Nevertheless, Leontopolis may be Ir-ha-h. The problem is not in the first place the identification of the name, but the determination of which one of the "five cities" was destroyed. The expression "shall be called the city of destruction" seems clearly to indicate that Ir-ha-h is not a name at all, but merely a descriptive appellation of that city which should "be destroyed." It still remains to inquire whether or not this was an independent appellation, or whether, more probably, it bore some relation to the name of that city at the time at which the prophet wrote, a play upon the sound, or the significance of the name or both of these, either through resemblance or contrast. If Gesenius is right, as he seems to be, in the opinion that "in the idiom of Isaiah Ir-ha-h means simply \'the city that shall be destroyed,\' " then the original problem of finding which one of the cities was destroyed seems to be the whole problem. Still, in the highly-wrought language of Isaiah and according to the genius of the Hebrew tongue, there is probably a play upon words. It is here that the consideration of the name itself properly comes in and probably guides us rightly. Speculation, by Gesenius, Duhm, Cheyne and others, has proposed various different readings of this name, some of them requiring two or three changes in the text to bring it to its present state. Speculation can always propose readings. On was sometimes called "Heres" and meant "house of the sun," which would be both translated and transliterated into Hebrew ha-cherec and might have \'ir ("city") prefixed. Naville, through his study of the great Harris papyrus, believed that the old Egyptian city which later was called Leontopolis (Tell el-Yehudiyeh) was immediately connected with On and called "House of Ra," also "House of the Sun." Thus, this name might be both transliterated and translated into the Hebrew ha-cherec and have \'ir prefixed. The difference between this expression and "Ir-ha-h" which Isaiah used is only the difference between "h" and "ch." So that Ir-ha-h is most probably a predictive prophecy concerning the disaster that was to overtake one of the "five cities," with a play upon the name of the city, and that city is either On, the later Heliopolis, or the ancient sacred city about 4 miles to the north of On, where Onias was to build his temple and which later became Leontopolis (Tellel-Yehudiyeh). No more positive identification of Ir-ha-h is yet possible.``93';
isbe[4648]='Ir-Nahash`ur-na\'-hash, ir-na\'-hash (\'ir nachash): A town of Judah of which Tehinnah is called the "father," probably meaning "founder" (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',4,12);">1Ch 4:12</a>). English Versions of the Bible margin suggests the translation "city of Nahash."``1';
isbe[4649]='Ir-Shemesh`ur-she\'-mesh, ir-she\'-mesh (\'ir shemesh, "city of the sun").`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=BETH+SHEMESH">BETH-SHEMESH</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=HERES">HERES</a>`1';
isbe[4650]='Ira`i\'-ra (\'ira\'; Eiras):<P>(1) A person referred to in <a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',20,26);">2Sa 20:26</a> as "priest" (so the Revised Version (British and American) correctly; the King James Version "a chief ruler," the American Standard Revised Version "chief minister") unto David. The translation of the Revised Version (British and American) is the only possible one; but, according to the text, Ira was "a Jairite," and thus of the tribe of Manasseh (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',32,41);">Nu 32:41</a>) and not eligible to the priesthood. On the basis of the Peshitta some would correct "Jairite" of <a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',20,26);">2Sa 20:26</a> into "Jattirite," referring to Jattir, a priestly city within the territory of Judah (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',21,14);">Jos 21:14</a>). Others point to <a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',8,18);">2Sa 8:18</a> margin, "David\'s sons were priests," as an indication that in David\'s time some non-Levites were permitted to serve<76>in some sense<73>as priests.<P>(2) An "Ithrite," or (with a different pointing of the text) a "Jattirite," one of David\'s "thirty" (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',23,38);">2Sa 23:38</a> parallel <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',11,40);">1Ch 11:40</a>); possibly identical with (1).<P>(3) Another of David\'s "thirty," son of Ikkesh of Tekoa (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',23,26);">2Sa 23:26</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',11,28);">1Ch 11:28</a>) and a captain of the temple guard (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',27,9);">1Ch 27:9</a>).``57';
isbe[4651]='Irad`i\'-rad (\'iradh; Septuagint Gaidad): Grandson of Cain and son of Enoch (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',4,18);">Ge 4:18</a>).``1';
isbe[4652]='Iram`i\'-ram (\'iram; Septuagint variously in Gen): A "chief" of Edom (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',36,43);">Ge 36:43</a> parallel <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',1,54);">1Ch 1:54</a>).``1';
isbe[4653]='Iri`i\'-ri (\'iri).`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=IR">IR</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=URIAS">URIAS</a>`1';
isbe[4654]='Irijah`i-ri\'-ja (yir\'iyayh, "Yah sees"): A captain at the gate of Benjamin in Jerusalem, who arrested Jeremiah the prophet on suspicion of intending to desert to the Chaldeans (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',37,13,14);">Jer 37:13-14</a>).``1';
isbe[4655]='Iron (1)`i\'-urn (barzel; sideros): It is generally believed that the art of separating iron from its ores and making it into useful forms was not known much earlier than 1000 BC, and that the making of brass (bronze) antedates it by many centuries, in spite of the frequent Biblical references where brass and iron occur together. This conjecture is based upon the fact that no specimen of worked iron has been found whose antiquity can be vouched for. The want of such instruments, however, can be attributed to the ease with which iron corrodes. Evidence that iron was used is found, for example, in the hieroglyphics of the tomb of Rameses III, where the blades of some of the weapons are painted blue while others are painted red, a distinction believed to be due to the fact that some were made of iron or steel and some of brass. No satisfactory proof has yet been presented that the marvelous sculpturing on the hard Egyptian granite was done with tempered bronze. It seems more likely that steel tools were used. After the discovery of iron, it was evidently a long time in replacing bronze. This was probably due to the difficulties in smelting it. An old mountaineer once described to the writer the process of iron smelting as it was carried on in Mt. Lebanon in past centuries. As a boy he had watched his father, who was a smelter, operate one of the last furnaces to be fired. For each firing, many cords of wood, especially green oak branches, were used, and several days of strenuous pumping at the eight bellows was necessary to supply the air blast. As a result a small lump of wrought iron was removed from the bottom of the furnace after cooling. The iron thus won was carried to Damascus where it was made into steel by workers who kept their methods secret. This process, which has not been worked now for years, was undoubtedly the same as was used by the ancients. It is not at all unlikely that the Lebanon iron, transformed into steel, was what was referred to as "northern iron" in <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',15,12);">Jer 15:12</a> (the King James Version). In many districts the piles of slag from the ancient furnaces are still evident.<P>Aside from the limited supply of iron ore in Mt. Lebanon (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',8,9);">De 8:9</a>), probably no iron was found in Syria and Palestine. It was brought from Tarshish (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',27,12);">Eze 27:12</a>) and Vedan and Jayan (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',27,19);">Eze 27:19</a>), and probably Egypt (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',4,20);">De 4:20</a>).<P>The first mention of iron made in the Bible is in <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',4,22);">Ge 4:22</a>, where Tubal-Cain is mentioned as "the forger of every cutting instrument of brass and iron." It is likely that the Jews learned the art of metallurgy from the Phoenicians (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',2,14);">2Ch 2:14</a>) (see <a href="study/isbe/search.html?string=CRAFTS">CRAFTS</A>). Iron was used in Biblical times much as it is today. For a description of a smith at work see Ecclesiasticus 38:28. Huge city gates, overlaid with strips of iron (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',107,16);">Ps 107:16</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',45,2);">Isa 45:2</a>), held in place by crude square-headed nails (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',22,3);">1Ch 22:3</a>), are still a familiar sight in the larger cities of Palestine and Syria (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',12,10);">Ac 12:10</a>). Threshing instruments were made of iron (<a onClick="return mV(\'Amo\',1,3);">Am 1:3</a>); so also harrows (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',12,31);">2Sa 12:31</a>), axes (ib; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',6,6);">2Ki 6:6</a>; see <a href="study/isbe/search.html?string=AX">Ax</a>), branding irons (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ti\',4,2);">1Ti 4:2</a>), and other tools (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',6,7);">1Ki 6:7</a>). There were iron weapons (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',35,16);">Nu 35:16</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',20,24);">Job 20:24</a>), armor (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',23,7);">2Sa 23:7</a>), horns (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',22,11);">1Ki 22:11</a>), fetters (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',105,18);">Ps 105:18</a>), chariots (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',17,16);">Jos 17:16</a>), yokes (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',28,14);">Jer 28:14</a>), breastplates (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',9,9);">Re 9:9</a>), pens (chisels) (<a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',19,24);">Job 19:24</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',17,1);">Jer 17:1</a>), sheets or plates (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',4,3);">Eze 4:3</a>), gods (<a onClick="return mV(\'Dan\',5,4);">Da 5:4</a>), weights (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',17,7);">1Sa 17:7</a>), bedsteads (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',3,11);">De 3:11</a>). Iron was used extensively in building the temple.<P>Figurative: "The iron furnace" is used metaphorically for affliction, chastisement (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',4,20);">De 4:20</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',22,\'18-22\');">Eze 22:18-22</a>). Iron is also employed figuratively to represent barrenness (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',28,23);">De 28:23</a>), slavery ("yoke of iron," <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',28,48);">De 28:48</a>), strength ("bars of iron," <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',40,18);">Job 40:18</a>), severity ("rod of iron," <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',2,9);">Ps 2:9</a>), captivity (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',107,10);">Ps 107:10</a>), obstinacy ("iron sinew," <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',48,4);">Isa 48:4</a>), fortitude ("iron pillar," <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',1,18);">Jer 1:18</a>), moral deterioration (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',6,28);">Jer 6:28</a>), political strength (<a onClick="return mV(\'Dan\',2,33);">Da 2:33</a>), destructive power ("iron teeth," <a onClick="return mV(\'Dan\',7,7);">Da 7:7</a>); the certainty with which a real enemy will ever show his hatred is as the rust returning upon iron (Ecclesiasticus 12:10 the King James Version, the Revised Version (British and American) "brass"); great obstacles ("walls of iron," 2Macc 11:9).`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=METALS">METALS</a>`133';
isbe[4656]='Iron (2)`i\'-ron (yir\'on): One of the fenced cities in the territory of Naphtali, named with Migdal-el and En-hazor (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',19,38);">Jos 19:38</a>). It is represented by the modern Yarun, a village with the ruins of a synagogue, at one time used as a monastery, fully 6 miles West of Qedes.``1';
isbe[4657]='Irpeel`ur\'-pe-el, ir\'-pe-el (yirpe\'el): An unidentified city in Benjamin (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',18,27);">Jos 18:27</a>). It may possibly be represented by Rafat, a ruin to the north of el-Jib, the ancient Gibeon.``1';
isbe[4658]='Irreverence`i-rev\'-er-ens.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=CRIME+CRIMES">CRIME, CRIMES</a>`1';
isbe[4659]='Irrigation`ir-i-ga\'-shun: No equivalent for this word is found in Biblical writings, although the use of irrigation for maintaining vegetable life is frequently implied (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',2,5,6);">Ec 2:5-6</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',58,11);">Isa 58:11</a>). To one familiar with the methods of irrigation practiced in Palestine, Syria and Egypt, the passage, "where thou sowedst thy seed, and wateredst it with thy foot, as a garden of herbs" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',11,10);">De 11:10</a>), is easily explained. The water is brought in channels to the gardens, where it is distributed in turn to the different square plots bounded by banks of earth, or along the rows of growing vegetables planted on the sides of the trenches. In stony soil the breach in the canal leading to a particular plot is opened and closed with a hoe. Any obstruction in the trench is similarly removed, while in the soft, loamy soil of the coastal plain or in the Nile valley these operations can be done with the foot; a practice still commonly seen.<P>The remains of the great irrigation works of the ancient Egyptians and Babylonians leave no doubt as to the extent to which they used water to redeem the deserts. In Palestine and Syria there was less need (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',10,7);">De 10:7</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',11,11);">11:11</a>) for irrigation. Here there is an annual fall of from 30 to 40 inches, coming principally during the winter. This is sufficient for the main crops. The summer supply of vegetables, as well as the fruit and mulberry trees, requires irrigation. Hardly a drop of many mountain streams is allowed to reach the sea, but is used to water the gardens of the mountain terraces and plains. This supply is now being supplemented by the introduction of thousands of pumps and oil engines for raising the water of the wells sufficiently to run it through the irrigation canals. Where a spring is small, its supply is gathered into a birket, or cistern, and then drawn off through a large outlet into the trenches, sometimes several days being required to fill the cistern. In <a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',2,6);">Ec 2:6</a>, Solomon is made to say, "I made me pools of water, to water therefrom the forest." This passage helps to explain the uses of the so-called Pools of Solomon, south of Jerusalem. In this same district are traces of the ancient terraces which were probably watered from these pools.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=AGRICULTURE">AGRICULTURE</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=GARDEN">GARDEN</a>`133';
isbe[4660]='Iru`i\'-roo (\'iru): Eldest son of Caleb (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',4,15);">1Ch 4:15</a>); probably to be read Ir, the syllable "-u" being the conjunction "and" belonging to the following word.``1';
isbe[4661]='Isaac`i\'-zak:<P><b>I. NAME</b><P class="in15">1. Root, Forms, Analogues<P class="in15">2. Implication<P><b>II. FAMILY AND KINDRED</b><P class="in15">1. Birth and Place in the Family<P class="in15">2. Relation to the Religious Birthright<P class="in15">3. Significance of Marriage<P><b>III. STORY OF LIFE</b><P class="in15">1. Previous to Marriage<P class="in15">2. Subsequent to Marriage<P><b>IV. BIBLICAL REFERENCES</b><P class="in15">1. In the Old Testament<P class="in15">2. In the New Testament<P><b>V. VIEWS OTHER THAN THE HISTORICAL</b><hr /><P>I. Name.<P>1. Root, Forms and Analogues:<P>This name has the double spelling, yitschaq, and yitschaq (Isaak), corresponding to the two forms in which appears the root meaning "to laugh"<22>a root that runs through nearly all the Semitic languages. In Hebrew both tsachaq and sachaq have their cognate nouns, and signify, in the simple stem, "to laugh," in the intensive stem, "to jest, play, dance, fondle," and the like. The noun yitshar, meaning "fresh oil," from a root tsahar ("to be bright, conspicuous"), proves that nouns can be built on precisely the model of yitschaq, which would in that case signify "the laughing one," or something similar. Yet Barth (Die Nominalbildung in den semitischen Sprachen, 154, b and c) maintains that all proper names beginning with yodh prefixed to the root are really pure imperfects, i.e. verbal forms with some subject to be understood if not actually present. Hence, Isaac would mean "laughs": either indefinite, "one laughs," or "he laughs," namely, the one understood as the subject. There are some 50 Hebrew names that have a similar form with no accompanying subject. Of these sometimes the meaning of the root is quite obscure, sometimes it is appropriate to any supposable subject. Each is a problem by itself; for the interpretation of any one of them there is little help to be gained from a comparison with the others.<P>2. Implication:<P>What subject, then, is to be understood with this imperfect verb yitschaq? Or is no definite subject to be supplied?<P>(1) \'El, God, may be supplied: "God laughs." Such an expression might be understood of the Divine benevolence, or of the fearful laughter of scorn for His enemies (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',2,4);">Ps 2:4</a>), or, euphemistically, of the Divine wrath, the "terrible glance," as of Moloch, etc. (so Meyer, Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstdmme, 255).<P>(2) Some human person: "he laughs." So, for example, he himself, namely, the child who receives the name; or, the father; or, the brother (not the mother, which would require titschaq). In the light now of these possibilities we turn to the narratives of Isaac\'s birth and career and find the following subjects suggested:<P>(a) father, <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',17,17);">Ge 17:17</a>;<P>(b) indefinite, "one laughs" (not "she laughs," see above), <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',18,\'12-15\');">Ge 18:12-15</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',21,6);">21:6</a>;<p>(c) brother, <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',21,9);">Ge 21:9</a>;<p>(d) himself, <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',26,8);">Ge 26:8</a>. Of these passages the last two show the verb in the intensive stem in the signification of (c) "mock" (?), and (d) "dally."<P>We find this same verb in these senses in <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',19,14);">Ge 19:14</a> and <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',39,14,17);">39:14,17</a>, in the stories of Lot and of Joseph, and it is possible that here also in the story of Isaac it has no more connection with the name Isaac than it has there with the names Lot and Joseph. However, this may be, there is obviously one interpretation of the name Isaac, which, required in two of the passages, is equally appropriate in them all, namely, that with the indefinite subect, "one laughs." Consideration of the sources to which these passages are respectively assigned by the documentary hypothesis tends only to confirm this result.<P>II. Family and Kindred.<P>The two things in Isaac\'s life that are deemed worthy of extensive treatment in the sacred narrative are his birth and his marriage. His significance, in fact, centers in his transmission of what went before him to what came after him. Hence, his position in his father\'s family, his relation to its greatest treasure, the religious birthright, and his marriage with Rebekah are the subjects that require special notice in this connection.<P>1. Birth and Place in the Family:<P>The birth of Isaac is represented as peculiar in these respects: the age of his parents, the purity of his lineage, the special Divine promises accompanying. What in Abraham\'s life is signalized by the Divine "call" in the from his father\'s house, and what in Jacob\'s life is brought about by a series of providential interpositions, seems in Isaac\'s case to become his by his birth. His mother, who is not merely of the same stock as Abraham but actually his half-sister, is the legal wife. As her issue Isaac is qualified by the laws of inheritance recognized in their native land to become his father\'s heir. But Ishmael, according to those laws, has a similarly valid claim (see <a href="study/isbe/search.html?string=ABRAHAM">ABRAHAM, iv, 2</a>), and it is only by express command that Abraham is led to abandon what was apparently both custom and personal preference, to "cast out the bondwoman and her son," and to acquiesce in the arrangement that "in Isaac shall thy seed be called."<P>2. Relation to the Religious Birthright:<P>But the birthright of Isaac was of infinitely more importance than the birthright in the family of any other wealthy man of that day. All that limitless blessing with which Abraham set forth under God\'s leadership was promised not only to him but to his "seed"; it was limitless in time as well as in scope. To inherit it was of more consequence to Isaac than to inherit any number of servants, flocks or wells of his father\'s acquisition. A sense of these relative values seems to have been a part of Isaac\'s spiritual endowment, and this, more than anything else related of him, makes him an attractive figure on the pages of Gen.<P>3. Significance of Marriage:<P>The raising up of a "seed" to be the bearers of these promises was the prime concern of Isaac\'s life. Not by intermarriage with the Canaanites among whom he lived, but by marriage with one of his own people, in whom as much as in himself should be visibly embodied the separateness of the chosen family of God<6F>thus primarily was Isaac to pass on to a generation as pure as his own the heritage of the Divine blessing. Rebekah enters the tent of Isaac as truly the chosen of God as was Abraham himself.<P>III. Story of Life.<P>Previous to his marriage Isaac\'s life is a part of the story of Abraham; after his marriage it merges into that of his children. It is convenient, therefore, to make his marriage the dividing-line in the narrative of his career.<P>1. Previous to Marriage:<P>A child whose coming was heralded by such signal marks of Divine favor as was Isaac\'s would be, even apart from other special considerations, a welcome and honored member of the patriarchal household. The covenant-sign of circumcision (which Isaac was the first to receive at the prescribed age of 8 days), the great feast at his weaning, and the disinheritance of Ishmael in his favor, are all of them indications of the unique position that this child held, and prepare the reader to appreciate the depth of feeling involved in the sacrifice of Isaac, the story of which follows thereupon. The age of Isaac at the time of this event is not stated, but the fact that he is able to carry the wood of the offering shows that he had probably attained his full growth. The single question he asks his father and his otherwise unbroken silence combine to exhibit him in a favorable light, as thoughtful, docile and trustful. The Divine interposition to save the lad thus devoted to God constitutes him afresh the bearer of the covenant-promise and justifies its explicit renewal on this occasion. From this point onward the biographer of Isaac evidently has his marriage in view, for the two items that preceded the long 24th chaper, in which Rebekah\'s choice and coming are rehearsed, are, first, the brief genealogical paragraph that informs the reader of the development of Nahor\'s family just as far as to Rebekah, and second, the chapter that tells of Sarah\'s death and burial<61>an event clearly associated in the minds of all with the marriage of Isaac (see <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',24,3,16,67);">Ge 24:3, 16, 67</a>). Divine interest in the choice of her who should be the mother of the promised seed is evident in every line of the chapter that dramatizes the betrothal of Isaac and Rebekah. Their first meeting is described at its close with the tender interest in such a scene natural to every descendant of the pair, and Issac is sketched as a man of a meditative turn (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',24,63);">Ge 24:63</a>) and an affectionate heart (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',24,67);">Ge 24:67</a>).<P>2. Subsequent to Marriage:<P>The dismissal of the sons of Abraham\'s concubines to the "East-country" is associated with the statement that Isaac inherited all that Abraham had; yet it has been remarked that, besides supplying them with gifts, Abraham was doing them a further kindness in thus emancipating them from continued subjection to Isaac, the future head of the clan. After Abraham\'s death we are expressly informed that God "blessed Isaac his son" in fulfillment of previous promise. The section entitled "the toledhoth (generations) of Isaac" extends from <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',25,\'19-\');">Ge 25:19 to 35:29</a>. At the opening of it Isaac is dwelling at Beer-lahai-roi (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',25,11);">25:11</A>), then at Gerar (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',26,1,6);">26:1,6</a>) and "the valley of Gerar" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',26,17);">26:17</A>), then at Beer-sheba (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',26,23);">26:23</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',28,10);">28:10</a>), all localities in the Negeb or "south-country." But after the long narrative of the fortunes of Jacob and his family, occupying many years, we find Isaac at its close living where his father Abraham had lived, at Hebron.<P>For 20 years Isaac and Rebekah remained childless; it was only upon the entreaty of Isaac that God granted them their twin sons. A famine was the usual signal for emigration to Egypt (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',12,10);">Ge 12:10</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',42,2);">42:2</a>); and Isaac also appears to have been on his way thither for the same cause, when, at Gerar, he is forbidden by God to proceed, and occasion is found therein to renew to him the covenant-promise of his inheritance: land, posterity, honor and the Divine presence (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',26,\'1-4\');">Ge 26:1-4</a>).<P>But Isaac had also received from his father traditions of another sort; he too did not hesitate to say to the men of Gerar that his wife was his sister, with the same intent to save his own life, but without the same justification in fact, as in the case of Abraham\'s earlier stratagem. Yet even the discovery by the king of Gerar of this duplicity, and repeated quarrels about water in that dry country, did not suffice to endanger Isaac\'s status with the settled inhabitants, for his large household and great resources made him a valuable friend and a dangerous enemy.<P>The favoritism which Isaac showed for one son and Rebekah for the other culminated in the painful scene when the paternal blessing was by guile obtained for Jacob, and in the subsequent enforced absence of Jacob from his parental home. Esau, too, afforded no comfort to his father and mother, and ere long he also withdrew from his father\'s clan. The subsequent reconciliation of the brothers permitted them to unite at length in paying the last honors to Isaac on his decease. Isaac was buried at Hebron where his parents had been buried (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',49,31);">Ge 49:31</a>), and where\' his place of sepulture is still honored.<P>IV. Biblical References.<P>There is a great contrast between Abraham and Jacob on the one hand, and Isaac on the other, with respect to their prominence in the literature of the nation that traced to them its descent. To be sure, when the patriarchs as a group are to be named, Isaac takes his place in the stereotyped formula of "Abraham, Isaac and Jacob," or "Israel" (so 23 times in the Old Testament, 7 times in the New Testament).<P>1. In the Old Testament:<P>But apart from this formula Isaac is referred to in the Old Testament only as follows. During the lifetime of Jacob the names of Abraham and Isaac are repeatedly linked in the same way as are all three subsequently: they form for that age the dynasty of the covenant. But several times Jacob calls Yahweh the God (or, the Fear; see infra) of Isaac, because Isaac is his own immediate predecessor in this chain of the faithful. Isaac is called the "gift" of God to Abraham, in the farewell address of Joshua, just as Jacob and Esau are called God\'s "gifts" to Isaac (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',24,3);">Jos 24:3</a>f; compare Koran, Sura 6 84). The "house of Isaac" is used by Amos as a parallel expression for "Israel," and "the high places of Isaac" for "the sanctuaries of Israel" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Amo\',7,16);">Am 7:16</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Amo\',7,9);">7:9</a>), in the same way as "Jacob" is often used elsewhere Septuagint in <a onClick="return mV(\'Amo\',7,16);">Am 7:16</a> reads "Jacob"). Other references to Isaac are simply as to his father\'s son or his children\'s father.<P>2. In the New Testament:<P>He fares better in the New Testament. For, besides the genealogical references, Isaac\'s significance as the first to receive circumcision on the 8th day is remembered (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',7,8);">Ac 7:8</a>); his position as first of the elect seed is set forth (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',9,7);">Ro 9:7</a>); his begetting of two sons so unlike in their relation to the promise as were Esau and Jacob is remarked (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',9,10);">Ro 9:10</a>); the facts of his being heir to the promise, a child of old age, and, though but one, the father of an innumerable progeny, are emphasized in Heb (<a onClick="return mV(\'Hbr\',11,\'9-12\');">11:9-12</A>), which also discovers the deeper significance of his sacrifice and restoration to his father (<a onClick="return mV(\'Hbr\',11,\'17-19\');">11:17-19</a>; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Jam\',2,21);">Jas 2:21</a>); and in the same context is noticed the faith in God implied in Isaac\'s blessing of his sons. But Isaac receives more attention than anywhere else in that famous passage in Ga (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gal\',4,\'21-31\');">4:21-31</a>), in which Paul uses Isaac and his mother as allegorical representations of Christians who are justified by faith in the promise of God, and are the free-born heirs of all the spiritual inheritance implied in that promise. Even Isaac\'s persecution by Ishmael has its counterpart in the attitude of the enemies of Paul\'s gospel toward him and his doctrines and converts.<P>V. Views Other than the Historical.<P>Philo, the chief allegorizer of Scriptural narratives, has little to say of Isaac, whom he calls "the self-instructed nature." But modern critics have dissolved his personality by representing him as the personification of an ethnic group. "All Israel," writes Wellhausen (Prol., 6th edition, 316), "is grouped with the people of Edom under the old name Isaac (<a onClick="return mV(\'Amo\',7,9,16);">Am 7:9, 16</a>) ...the material here is not mythical (as in <span class="noTag">Ge 1-11</span>) but national." And just as Israel plus Edom had little or no significance in national customs or political events, when compared on the one hand with Israel alone (= Jacob), and with Israel plus Edom plus Moab and Ammon (= Abraham) on the other hand; so likewise the figure of Isaac is colorless and his story brief, as compared with the striking figures of Jacob on the one hand and of Abraham on the other hand, and the circumstantial stories of their lives.<P>Other scholars will have none of this national view, because they believe Isaac to be the name of an ancient deity, the local numen of Beersheba. Stark, whom others have followed, proposes to interpret the phrase translated "the Fear of Isaac" in <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',31,42,53);">Ge 31:42, 53</a> as the name of this god used by his worshippers, the Terror Isaac, Isaac the terrible god. For the sense of Isaac in that case see above under I,2,(1). Meyer (loc. cit.) defends the transfer of the name from a god to the hero of a myth, by comparing the sacrifice of Isaac ("the only story in which Isaac plays an independent role"!) with the Greek myth of Iphigenia\'s sacrifice (Hesiod, Euripides, etc.), in which the by-name of a goddess (Iphigenia) identified with Artemis has passed to the intended victim rescued by Artemis from death.<P>The most recent critical utterances reject both the foregoing views of Isaac as in conflict with the data of Genesis. Thus Gunkel (Schriften des Altes Testament, 5te Lieferung, 1910, 41) writes: "Quite clearly the names of Abraham, Isaac, and all the patriarchal women are not tribal names. ...The interpretation of the figures of Genesis as nations furnishes by no means a general key." And again: "Against the entire assumption that the principal patriarchal figures are originally gods, is above all to be noted that the names Jacob and Abraham are proved by the Babylonian to be personal names in current use, and at the same time that the sagas about them can in no wise be understood as echoes of original myths. Even Winckler\'s more than bold attempt to explain these sagas as original calendar-myths must be pronounced a complete failure." Yet Gunkel and those who share his position are careful to distinguish their own view from that of the "apologetes," and to concede no more than the bare fact that there doubtless were once upon a time persons named Abraham, Isaac, etc. For these critics Isaac is simply a name about which have crystallized cycles of folk-stories, that have their parallels in other lands and languages, but have received with a Hebrew name also a local coloring and significance on the lips of successive Hebrew story-tellers, saga-builders and finally collectors and editors; "Everyone who knows the history of sagas is sure that the saga is not able to preserve through the course of so many centuries, a true picture" of the patriarchs.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ABRAHAM">ABRAHAM</a>`15';
isbe[4662]='Isaac, Testament of``<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=APOCALYPTIC+LITERATURE">APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE</a>`1';
isbe[4663]='Isaiah, 1-7`i-za\'-ya, i-zi\'-a:<P>1. Name<P>2. Personal History<P>3. Call<P>4. Literary Genius and Style<P>5. Traditions concerning His Martyrdom<P>6. Period<P>7. Analysis and Contents<P>8. Isaiah\'s Prophecies Chronologically Arranged<P>9. The Critical Problem<P class="in15">(1) The History of Criticism<P class="in15">(2) The Disintegration of "Deutero-Isaiah"<P class="in15">(3) Recent Views<P class="in15">(4) The Present State of the Question<P class="in15">(5) Reasons for Dissecting the Book<P class="in15">(6) Arguments for One Isaiah<p class="in30">(a) The Circle of Ideas<p class="in30">(b) The Literary Style<p class="in30">(c) Historical References<p class="in30">(d) The Predictire Element<p class="in30">(e) Cyrus a Subject of Prediction<P>LITERATURE<hr /><P>Of all Israel\'s celebrated prophets, Isaiah is the king. The writings which bear his name are among the profoundest in all literature. One great theme<6D>salvation by faith<74>stamps them all. Isaiah is the Paul of the Old Testament.<P>1. Name:<P>In Hebrew yesha\'yahu, and yesha\'yah; Greek Esaias; Latin Esaias and Isaias. His name was symbolic of his message. Like "Joshua," it means "Yahweh saves," or "Yahweh is salvation," or "salvation of Yahweh."<P>2. Personal History:<P>Isaiah was the son of Amoz (not Amos). He seems to have belonged to a family of some rank, as may be inferred from his easy access to the king (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',7,3);">Isa 7:3</a>), and his close intimacy with the priest (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',8,2);">Isa 8:2</a>). Tradition says he was the cousin of King Uzziah. He lived in Jerusalem and became court preacher. He was married and had two sons: Shear-jashub, his name signifying "a remnant shall return" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',7,3);">Isa 7:3</a>), and Maher-shalal-hash-baz, "hasting to the spoil, hurrying to the prey," symbolic of Assyria\'s mad lust of conquest (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',8,3);">Isa 8:3</a>). Jewish tradition, based upon a false interpretation of <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',7,14);">Isa 7:14</a>, declares he was twice married.<P>3. Call:<P>In the year that King Uzziah died, Isaiah, apparently while worshipping in the temple, received a call to the prophetic office (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',6,\'1-\');">Isa 6</a>). He responded with noteworthy alacrity, and accepted his commission, though he knew from the outset that his task was to be one of fruitless warning and exhortation (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',6,\'9-13\');">6:9-13</a>). Having been reared in Jerusalem, he was well fitted to become the political and religious counselor of the nation, but the experience which prepared him most for his important work was the vision of the majestic and thrice-holy God which he saw in the temple in the death-year of King Uzziah. There is no good reason for doubting that this was his inaugural vision, though some regard it as a vision which came to him after years of experience in preaching and as intended to deepen his spirituality. While this is the only explicit "vision" Isaiah saw, yet his entire book, from first to last, is, as the title (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',1,1);">1:1</a>) suggests, a "vision." His horizon, both political and spiritual, was practically unbounded. In a very true sense, as Delitzsch says, he was "the universal prophet of Israel."<p>4. Literary Genius and Style:<p>For versatility of expression and brilliancy of imagery Isaiah had no superior, not even a rival. His style marks the climax of Hebrew literary art. Both his periods and genius and descriptions are most finished and sublime. He is a perfect artist in words. Beauty and strength are characteristic of his entire book. Epigrams and metaphors, particularly of flood, storm and sound (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',1,13);">1:13</A>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',5,18,22);">5:18,22</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',8,8);">8:8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',10,22);">10:22</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',28,17,20);">28:17,20</A>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',30,28,30);">30:28,30</A>), interrogation and dialogue (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',6,8);">6:8</A>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',10,8,9);">10:8,9</A>), antithesis and alliteration (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',1,18);">1:18</A>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',3,24);">3:24</A>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',17,10,12);">17:10,12</A>), hyperbole and parable (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',2,7);">2:7</A>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',5,\'1-7\');">5:1-7</A>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',28,\'23-29\');">28:23-29</A>), even paranomasia, or play upon words (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',5,7);">5:7</A>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',7,9);">7:9</A>), characterize Isaiah\'s book as the great masterpiece of Hebrew literature.He is also famous for his richness of vocabulary and synonyms. For example, Ezekiel uses 1,535 words; Jeremiah, 1,653; the Psalmists 2,170; while Isaiah uses 2,186. Isaiah was also an orator: Jerome likened him to Demosthenes; and a poet: he frequently elaborates his messages in rhythmic or poetic style (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',12,\'1-6\');">12:1-6</A>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',25,\'1-5\');">25:1-5</A>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',26,\'1-12\');">26:1-12</A>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',38,\'10-20\');">38:10-20</A>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',42,\'1-4\');">42:1-4</A>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',49,\'1-9\');">49:1-9</A>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',50,\'4-9\');">50:4-9</A>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',52,\'13-\');">52:13</A>-<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',53,\'1-12\');">53:12</A>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',60,\'1-\');">60-62</A>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',66,\'5-24\');">66:5-24</A>); and in several instances slips into elegiac rhythm, e.g. in <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',37,\'22-29\');">37:22-29</A> there is a fine taunting poem on Sennacherib, and in <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',14,\'4-23\');">14:4-23</A> another on the king of Babylon. As Driver observes, "Isaiah\'s poetical genius is superb."<p>5. Traditions concerning His Martyrdom:<p>Nothing definite or historical is known concerning the prophet\'s end. Toward the close of the 2nd century AD, however, there was a tradition to the effect that he suffered martyrdom in the heathen reaction which occurred under King Manasseh, because of certain speeches concerning God and the Holy City which his contemporaries alleged were contrary to the law. Indeed the Jewish Mishna explicitly states that Manasseh slew him. Justin Martyr also (150 AD), in his controversial dialogue with the Jew Trypho, reproaches the Jews with this accusation, "whom ye sawed asunder with a wooden saw"; this tradition is further confirmed by a Jewish Apocalypse of the 2nd century AD, entitled, The Ascension of Isaiah, and by Epiphanius in his so-called Lives of the Prophets. It is barely possible that there is an allusion to his martyrdom in <a onClick="return mV(\'Hbr\',11,37);">Heb 11:37</a>, which reads, "They were stoned, they were sawn asunder," but this is by no means certain. In any case Isaiah probably survived the great catastrophe of the siege of Jerusalem by Sennacherib in 701 BC, and possibly also the death of Hezekiah in 699 BC; for in <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',32,32);">2Ch 32:32</a> it is stated that Isaiah wrote a biography of King Hezekiah. If so, his prophetic activity extended over a period of more than 40 years. Dr. G. A. Smith extends it to "more than 50" (Jerusalem, II, 180; compare Whitehouse, "Isaiah," New Century Bible, I, 72).<p>6. Period:<p>According to the title of his book (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',1,1);">1:1</A>), Isaiah prophesied during the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz and Hezekiah, kings of Judah. He dates his inaugural vision (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',6,1);">6:1</A>) in Uzziah\'s death-year, which was approximately 740 BC. This marks, therefore, the beginning of his prophetic ministry. And we know that he was still active as late as the siege of Jerusalem by Sennacherib in 701 BC. Hence, the minimum period of his activity as a prophet was from 740 to 701 BC. As a young man Isaiah witnessed the rapid development of Judah into a strong commercial and military state; for under Uzziah Judah attained a degree of prosperity and strength never before enjoyed since the days of Solomon. Walls, towers, fortifications, a large standing army, a port for commerce on the Red Sea, increased inland trade, tribute from the Ammonites, success in war with the Philistines and the Arabians<6E>all these became Judah\'s during Uzziah\'s long and prosperous reign of 52 years. But along with power and wealth came also avarice, oppression, religious formality and corruption. The temple revenues indeed were greatly increased, but religion and life were too frequently dissociated; the nation\'s progress was altogether material. During the reign of Jotham (740-736 BC), who for several years was probably associated with his father as co-regent, a new power began to appear over the eastern horizon. The Assyrians, with whom Ahab had come in contact at the battle of Karkar in 854 BC, and to whom Jehu had paid tribute in 842 BC, began to manifest anew their characteristic lust of conquest. Tiglathpileser III, who is called "Pul" in <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',15,19);">2Ki 15:19</a> and reigned over Assyria from 745 to 727 BC, turned his attention westward, and in 738 BC reduced Arpad, Calno, Carchemish, Hamath and Damascus, causing them to pay tribute. His presence in the West led Pekah, king of Northen Israel, and Rezin, king of Damascus, to form an alliance in order to resist further encroachment on the part of Assyria. When Ahaz refused to join their confederacy they resolved to dethrone him and set in his stead the son of Tabeel upon the throne of David (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',16,5);">2Ki 16:5</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',7,6);">Isa 7:6</a>). The struggle which ensued is commonly known as the Syro-Ephraimitic war (734 BC)<29>one of the great events in Isaiah\'s period. Ahaz in panic sent to Tiglath-pileser for help (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',16,7);">2Ki 16:7</a>), who of course responded with alacrity. The result was that the great Assyrian warrior sacked Gaza and carried all of Galilee and Gilead into captivity (734) and finally took Damascus (732 BC). Ahaz was forced to pay dearly for his protection and Judah was brought very low (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',15,29);">2Ki 15:29</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',16,\'7-9\');">16:7-9</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',28,19);">2Ch 28:19</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',7,1);">Isa 7:1</a>). The religious as well as the political effect of Ahaz\' policy was decidedly baneful. To please Tiglath-pileser, Ahaz went to Damascus to join in the celebration of his victories, and while there saw a Syrian altar, a pattern of which he sent to Jerusalem and had a copy set up in the temple in place of the brazen altar of Solomon. Thus Ahaz, with all the influence of a king, introduced idolatry into Jerusalem, even causing his sons to pass through the fire (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',16,\'10-16\');">2Ki 16:10-16</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',28,3);">2Ch 28:3</a>).<p>5. Traditions concerning His Martyrdom:<p>Nothing definite or historical is known concerning the prophet\'s end. Toward the close of the 2nd century AD, however, there was a tradition to the effect that he suffered martyrdom in the heathen reaction which occurred under King Manasseh, because of certain speeches concerning God and the Holy City which his contemporaries alleged were contrary to the law. Indeed the Jewish Mishna explicitly states that Manasseh slew him. Justin Martyr also (150 AD), in his controversial dialogue with the Jew Trypho, reproaches the Jews with this accusation, "whom ye sawed asunder with a wooden saw"; this tradition is further confirmed by a Jewish Apocalypse of the 2nd century AD, entitled, The Ascension of Isaiah, and by Epiphanius in his so-called Lives of the Prophets. It is barely possible that there is an allusion to his martyrdom in <a onClick="return mV(\'Hbr\',11,37);">Heb 11:37</a>, which reads, "They were stoned, they were sawn asunder," but this is by no means certain. In any case Isaiah probably survived the great catastrophe of the siege of Jerusalem by Sennacherib in 701 BC, and possibly also the death of Hezekiah in 699 BC; for in <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',32,32);">2Ch 32:32</a> it is stated that Isaiah wrote a biography of King Hezekiah. If so, his prophetic activity extended over a period of more than 40 years. Dr. G. A. Smith extends it to "more than 50" (Jerusalem, II, 180; compare Whitehouse, "Isaiah," New Century Bible, I, 72).<p>6. Period:<p>According to the title of his book (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',1,1);">1:1</A>), Isaiah prophesied during the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz and Hezekiah, kings of Judah. He dates his inaugural vision (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',6,1);">6:1</A>) in Uzziah\'s death-year, which was approximately 740 BC. This marks, therefore, the beginning of his prophetic ministry. And we know that he was still active as late as the siege of Jerusalem by Sennacherib in 701 BC. Hence, the minimum period of his activity as a prophet was from 740 to 701 BC. As a young man Isaiah witnessed the rapid development of Judah into a strong commercial and military state; for under Uzziah Judah attained a degree of prosperity and strength never before enjoyed since the days of Solomon. Walls, towers, fortifications, a large standing army, a port for commerce on the Red Sea, increased inland trade, tribute from the Ammonites, success in war with the Philistines and the Arabians<6E>all these became Judah\'s during Uzziah\'s long and prosperous reign of 52 years. But along with power and wealth came also avarice, oppression, religious formality and corruption. The temple revenues indeed were greatly increased, but religion and life were too frequently dissociated; the nation\'s progress was altogether material. During the reign of Jotham (740-736 BC), who for several years was probably associated with his father as co-regent, a new power began to appear over the eastern horizon. The Assyrians, with whom Ahab had come in contact at the battle of Karkar in 854 BC, and to whom Jehu had paid tribute in 842 BC, began to manifest anew their characteristic lust of conquest. Tiglathpileser III, who is called "Pul" in <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',15,19);">2Ki 15:19</a> and reigned over Assyria from 745 to 727 BC, turned his attention westward, and in 738 BC reduced Arpad, Calno, Carchemish, Hamath and Damascus, causing them to pay tribute. His presence in the West led Pekah, king of Northern Israel, and Rezin, king of Damascus, to form an alliance in order to resist further encroachment on the part of Assyria. When Ahaz refused to join their confederacy they resolved to dethrone him and set in his stead the son of Tabeel upon the throne of David (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',16,5);">2Ki 16:5</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',7,6);">Isa 7:6</a>). The struggle which ensued is commonly known as the Syro-Ephraimitic war (734 BC)<29>one of the great events in Isaiah\'s period. Ahaz in panic sent to Tiglath-pileser for help (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',16,7);">2Ki 16:7</a>), who of course responded with alacrity. The result was that the great Assyrian warrior sacked Gaza and carried all of Galilee and Gilead into captivity (734) and finally took Damascus (732 BC). Ahaz was forced to pay dearly for his protection and Judah was brought very low (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',15,29);">2Ki 15:29</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',16,\'7-9\');">16:7-9</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',28,19);">2Ch 28:19</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',7,1);">Isa 7:1</a>). The religious as well as the political effect of Ahaz\' policy was decidedly baneful. To please Tiglath-pileser, Ahaz went to Damascus to join in the celebration of his victories, and while there saw a Syrian altar, a pattern of which he sent to Jerusalem and had a copy set up in the temple in place of the brazen altar of Solomon. Thus Ahaz, with all the influence of a king, introduced idolatry into Jerusalem, even causing his sons to pass through the fire (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',16,\'10-16\');">2Ki 16:10-16</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',28,3);">2Ch 28:3</a>).<p>Hezekiah succeeded Ahaz, beginning to rule at the age of 25 and reigning 29 years (727-699 BC). Isaiah was at least 15 years his senior. The young king inherited from his father a heavy burden. The splendor of Uzziah\'s and Jotham\'s reigns was rapidly fading before the ever-menacing and avaricious Assyrians. Hezekiah began his reign with reformation. "He removed the high places, and brake the pillars, and cut down the Asherah" (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',18,4,22);">2Ki 18:4, 22</a>). He even invited the surviving remnant of Northern Israel to join in celebrating the Passover (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',30,1);">2Ch 30:1</a>). But Israel\'s end was drawing near. Hoshea, the vacillating puppet-king of Northern Israel (730-722 BC), encouraged by Egypt, refused longer to pay Assyria his annual tribute (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',17,4);">2Ki 17:4</a>); whereupon Shalmaneser IV, who had succeeded Tiglath-pileser, promptly appeared before the gates of Samaria in 724 BC, and for 3 weary years besieged the city (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',17,5);">2Ki 17:5</a>). Finally, the city was captured by Sargon II, who succeeded Shalmaneser IV in 722 BC, and 27,292 of Israel\'s choicest people (according to Sargon\'s own description) were deported to Assyria, and colonists were brought from Babylon and other adjacent districts and placed in the cities of Samaria (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',17,6,24);">2Ki 17:6, 24</a>). Thus the kingdom of Northern Israel passed into oblivion, and Judah was left ever after quite exposed to the direct ravages, political and religious, of her Assyrio-Babylonian neighbors. In fact Judah herself barely escaped destruction by promising heavy tribute. This was the second great political crisis during Isaiah\'s ministry. Other crises were soon to follow. One was the desperate illness of King Hezekiah, who faced assured death in 714 BC. Being childless, he was seriously concerned for the future of the Davidic dynasty. He resorted to prayer, however, and God graciously extended his life 15 years (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',20,\'1-\');">2Ki 20</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',38,\'1-\');">Isa 38</a>). His illness occurred during the period of Babylon\'s independence under Merodach-baladan, the ever-ambitious, irresistible and uncompromising enemy of Assyria, who for 12 years (721-709 BC) maintained independent supremacy over Babylon. Taking advantage of Hezekiah\'s wonderful cure, Merodach seized the opportunity of sending an embassy to Jerusalem to congratulate him on his recovery (712 BC), and at the same time probably sought to form an alliance with Judah to resist Assyrian supremacy (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',20,12);">2Ki 20:12</a>ff; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',39,\'1-\');">Isa 39</a>). Nothing, however, came of the alliance, for the following year Sargon\'s army reappeared in Philistia in order to discipline Ashdod for conspiracy with the king of Egypt (711 BC). The greatest crisis was yet to come. Its story is as follows: Judah and her neighbors groaned more and more under the heavy exactions of Assyria. Accordingly, when Sargon was assassinated and Sennacherib came to the throne in 705 BC, rebellion broke out on all sides. Merodach-baladan, who had been expelled by Sargon in 709 BC, again took Babylon and held it for at least six months in 703 BC. Hezekiah, who was encouraged by Egypt and all Philistia, except Padi of Ekron, the puppet-king of Sargon, refused longer to pay Assyria tribute (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',18,7);">2Ki 18:7</a>). Meanwhile a strong pro-Egyptian party had sprung up in Jerusalem. In view of all these circumstances, Sennacherib in 701 BC marched westward with a vast army, sweeping everything before him. Tyre was invested though not taken; on the other hand, Joppa, Eltekeh, Ekron, Ashkelon, Ammon, Moab, and Edom all promptly yielded to his demands. Hezekiah was panic stricken and hastened to bring rich tribute, stripping even the temple and the palace of their treasures to do so (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',18,\'13-16\');">2Ki 18:13-16</a>). But Sennacherib was not satisfied. He overran Judah, capturing, as he tells us in his inscription, 46 walled towns and smaller villages without number, carrying 200,150 of Judah\'s population into captivity to Assyria, and demanding as tribute 800 talents of silver and 30 talents of gold, in all, over $1,500,000; he took also, he claims, Hezekiah\'s daughters and palace women, seized his male and female singers, and carried away enormous spoil. But the end was not yet. Sennacherib himself, with the bulk of the army, halted in Philistia to reduce Lachish; thence he sent a strong detachment under his commander-in-chief, the Rabshakeh, to besiege Jerusalem (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',18,\'17-\');">2Ki 18:17</A>-<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',19,\'1-8\');">19:8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',36,\'2-\');">Isa 36:2</A>-<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',37,\'1-8\');">37:8</a>). As he describes this blockade in his own inscription: "I shut up Hezekiah in Jerusalem like a bird in a cage." The Rabshakeh, however, failed to capture the city and returned to Sennacherib, who meanwhile had completely conquered Lachish, and was now warring against Libnab. A second expedition against Jerusalem was planned, but hearing that Tirhakah (at that time the commander-in-chief of Egypt\'s forces and only afterward "king of Ethiopia") was approaching, Sennacherib was forced to content himself with sending messengers with a letter to Hezekiah, demanding immediate surrender of the city (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',19,9);">2Ki 19:9</a>ff; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',37,9);">Isa 37:9</a>). Hezekiah, however, through Isaiah\'s influence held out; and in due time, though Sennacherib disposed of Tirhakah\'s army without difficulty, his immense host in some mysterious way<61>by plague or otherwise<73>was suddenly smitten, and the great Assyrian conqueror was forced to return to Nineveh; possibly because Merodach-baladan had again appeared in Babylonia. Sennacherib never again returned to Palestine, so far as we know, during the subsequent 20 years of his reign, though he did make an independent expedition into North Arabia (691-689 BC). This invasion of Judah by Sennacherib in 701 BC was the great political event in Isaiah\'s ministry. Had it not been for the prophet\'s statesmanship, Jerusalem might have capitulated. As it was, only a small, insignificantly small, remnant of Judah\'s population escaped. Isaiah had at this time been preaching 40 years. How much longer he labored is not known.<p>7. Analysis and Contents:<p>There are six general divisions of the book:<p>(1) <span class="noTag">Isa 1-12</span>, prophecies concerning Judah and Jerusalem, closing with promises of restoration and a psalm of thanksgiving;<p>(2) <span class="noTag">Isa 13-23</span>, oracles of judgment and salvation, for the most part concerning those foreign nations whose fortunes affected Judah and Jerusalem;<p>(3) <span class="noTag">Isa 24-27</span>, Yahweh\'s world-judgment in the redemption of Israel;<p>(4) <span class="noTag">Isa 28-35</span>, a cycle of prophetic warnings against alliance with Egypt, closing with a prophecy concerning Edom and a promise of Israel\'s ransom;<p>(5) <span class="noTag">Isa 36-39</span>, history, prophecy and song intermingled; serving both as an appendix to <span class="noTag">Isa 1-35</span>, and as an introduction to <span class="noTag">Isa 40-66</span>;<p>(6) <span class="noTag">Isa 40-66</span>, prophecies of comfort and salvation, and also of the future glory awaiting Israel.<p>By examining in detail these several divisions we can trace better the prophet\'s thought.<p>Thus, <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',1,\'1-\');">Isa 1-12</a> unfold Judah\'s social sins (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',1,\'1-\');">Isa 1-6</a>), and her political entanglements (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',7,\'1-\');">Isa 7-12</a>);<p><a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',1,\'1-\');">Isa 1</a> is an introduction, in which the prophet strikes the chief notes of his entire book: namely, <p class="in15">thoughtlessness (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',1,\'2-9\');">1:2-9</A>), <p class="in15">formalism in worship (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',1,\'10-17\');">1:10-17</A>), <p class="in15">pardon (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',1,\'18-23\');">1:18-23</A>) and <p class="in15">judgment (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',1,\'24-31\');">1:24-31</A>).<p><a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',2,\'1-\');">Isa 2-4</a> contain three distinct pictures of Zion:<p class="in15">(a) her exaltation (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',2,\'2-4\');">2:2-4</A>),<p class="in15">(b) her present idolatry (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',2,\'5-\');">2:5-4:1</a>), and <p class="in15">(c) her eventual purification (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',4,\'2-6\');">4:2-6</A>).<p><a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',5,\'1-\');">Isa 5</a> contains an arraignment of Judah and Jerusalem, composed of three parts:<p class="in15">(a) a parable of Yahweh\'s vineyard (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',5,\'1-7\');">5:1-7</A>);<p class="in15">(b) a series of six woes pronounced against<br>insatiable greed (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',5,\'8-10\');">5:8-10</A>),<br>dissipation (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',5,\'11-17\');">5:11-17</A>), daring defiance against Yahweh (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',5,18,19);">5:18,19</A>),<br>confusion of moral distinctions (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',5,20);">5:20</A>),<br>political self-conceit (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',5,21);">5:21</A>), and <br>misdirected heroism (<a onClick="return V(\'Isa\',5,22,23);">5:22,23</A>); and<p class="in15">(c) an announcement of imminent judgment. The Assyrian is on the way and there will be no escape (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',5,\'24-30\');">5:24-30</A>).<p><a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',6,\'1-\');">Isa 6</a> recounts the prophet\'s inaugural vision and commission. It is really an apologetic, standing as it does after the prophet\'s denunciations of his contemporaries. When they tacitly object to his message of threatening and disaster, he is able to reply that, having pronounced "woe" upon himself in the year that King Uzziah died, he had the authority to pronounce woe upon them (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',6,5);">6:5</A>). Plainly Isaiah tells them that Judah\'s sins are well-nigh hopeless. They are becoming spiritually insensible. They have eyes but they cannot see. Only judgment can, avail: "the righteous judgment of a forgotten God" awaits them. A "holy seed," however, still existed in Israel\'s stock (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',6,13);">6:13</A>).<p>Coming to <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',7,\'1-\');">Isa 7-12</a>, Isaiah appears in the role of a practical statesman. He warns Ahaz against political entanglements with Assyria. The section <span class="noTag">7:1-9:7</span> is a prophecy of Immanuel, history and prediction being intermingled.<p>They describe the Syro-Ephraimitic uprising in 736 BC, when Pekah of Northern Israel and Rezin of Damascus, in attempting to defend themselves against the Assyrians, demanded that Ahaz of Jerusalem should become their ally. But Ahaz preferred the friendship of Assyria, and refused to enter into alliance with them. And in order to defend himself, he applied to Assyria for assistance, sending ambassadors with many precious treasures, both royal and sacred, to bribe Tiglath-pileser. It was at this juncture that Isaiah, at Yahweh\'s bidding, expostulates with Ahaz concerning the fatal step he is about to take, and as a practical statesman warns Ahaz, "the king of No-Faith," that the only path of safety lies in loyalty to Yahweh and keeping clear of foreign alliances; that "God is with us" for salvation; and that no "conspiracy" can possibly be successful unless God too is against us. When, however, the prophet\'s message of promise and salvation finds no welcome, he commits it to his disciples, bound up and sealed for future use; assuring his hearers that unto them a child is born and unto them a son is given, in whose day the empire of David will be established upon a basis of justice and righteousness. The Messianic scion is the ground of the prophet\'s hope; which hope, though unprecedented, he thus early in his ministry commits, written and sealed, to his inner circle of "disciples."<p>See, further, <a href="study/isbe/search.html?string=IMMANUEL">IMMANUEL</A>.<p>The section <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',9,\'8-\');">Isa 9:8</a>-<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',10,\'1-4\');">10:4</a> contains an announcement to Northern Israel of accumulated wrath and impending ruin, with a refrain (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',9,12,17,21);">9:12,17,21</A>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',10,4);">10:4</A>). Here, in an artistic poem composed of four strophes, the prophet describes the great calamities which Yahweh has sent down upon Northern Israel but which have gone unheeded:<br>foreign invasion (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',9,\'8-12\');">9:8-12</A>),<br>defeat in battle (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',9,\'13-17\');">9:13-17</A>),<br>anarchy (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',9,\'18-21\');">9:18-21</A>), and<br>impending captivity (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',10,\'1-4\');">10:1-4</A>).<p>Yet Yahweh\'s judgments have gone unheeded: "For all this his anger is not turned away, but his hand is stretched out still." Divine discipline has failed; only judgment remains.<p>In <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',10,\'5-34\');">Isa 10:5-34</a>, Assyria is declared to be an instrument of Yahweh, the rod of Yahweh\'s anger. <p><a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',11,\'1-\');">Isa 11</A>-<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',12,\'1-\');">12</a> predict Israel\'s return from exile, including a vision of the Messiah\'s reign of ideal peace. For Isaiah\'s vision of the nation\'s future reached far beyond mere exile. To him the downfall of Assyria was the signal for the commencement of a new era in Israel\'s history. Assyria has no future, her downfall is fatal; Judah has a future, her calamities are only disciplinary. An Ideal Prince will be raised up in whose advent all Nature will rejoice, even dumb animals (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',11,\'1-10\');">11:1-10</A>). A second great exodus will take place, for the Lord will set His hand again "the second time" to recover the remnant of His people "from the four corners of the earth" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',11,11,12);">11:11,12</A>). In that day, "Ephraim shall not envy Judah, and Judah shall not vex Ephraim" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',11,13);">11:13</A>). On the contrary, the reunited nation, redeemed and occupying their rightful territory (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',11,\'14-16\');">11:14-16</A>), shall sing a hymn of thanksgiving, proclaiming the salvation of Yahweh to all the earth (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',12,\'1-\');">Isa 12</a>). <p><a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',13,\'1-\');">Isaiah 13-23</a> contain oracles of judgment and salvation, for the most part concerning those foreign nations whose fortunes affected Judah and Jerusalem. They are grouped together by the editor, as similar foreign oracles are in <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',46,\'1-\');">Jer 46-51</a> and <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',25,\'1-\');">Eze 25-32</a>. Isaiah\'s horizon was world-wide. First among the foreign prophecies stands the oracle concerning Babylon (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',13,\'1-\');">Isa 13:1</A>-<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',14,\'1-23\');">14:23</a>), in which he predicts the utter destruction of the city (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',13,\'2-22\');">Isa 13:2-22</a>), and sings a dirge or taunt-song over her fallen king (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',14,\'4-23\');">Isa 14:4-23</a>). The king alluded to is almost beyond doubt an Assyrian (not a Babylonian) monarch of the 8th century; the brief prophecy immediately following in <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',14,\'24-27\');">Isa 14:24-27</a> concerning Assyria tacitly confirms this interpretation. Another brief oracle concerning Babylon (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',21,\'1-10\');">21:1-10</A>) describes the city\'s fall as imminent. Both oracles stand or fall together as genuine prophecies of Isaiah. Both seem to have been written in Jerusalem (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',13,2);">13:2</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',21,9,10);">21:9,10</A>). It cannot be said that either is absolutely unrelated in thought and language to Isaiah\'s age (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',14,13);">14:13</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',21,2);">21:2</a>); each foretells the doom to fall on Babylon (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',13,19);">13:19</A>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',21,9);">21:9</a>) at the hands of the Medes (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',13,17);">13:17</A>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',21,2);">21:2</A>); and each describes the Israelites as already in exile<6C>but not necessarily all Israel.<p>The section <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',14,\'24-27\');">Isa 14:24-27</a> tells of the certain destruction of the Assyrian.<p>The passage <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',14,\'28-32\');">Isa 14:28-32</a> is an oracle concerning Philistia.<p><a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',15,\'1-\');">Isaiah 15</A>-<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',16,\'1-\');">16</a> are ancient oracles against Moab, whose dirgelike meter resembles that of <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',13,\'1-\');">Isa 13</a>-<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',14,\'1-\');">14</a>. It is composed of two separate prophecies belonging to two different periods in Isaiah\'s ministry (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',16,13,14);">16:13,14</A>). The three points of particular interest in the oracle are:<p class="in15">(1) the prophet\'s tender sympathy for Moab in her affliction (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',15,5);">15:5</A>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',16,11);">16:11</A>). Isaiah mingles his own tears with those of the Moabites. As Delitzsch says, "There is no prophecy in the Book of Isaiah in which the heart of the prophet is so painfully moved by what his spirit beholds and his mouth must prophecy."<p class="in15">(2) Moab\'s pathetic appeal for shelter from her foes; particularly the ground on which she urges it, namely, the Messianic hope that the Davidic dynasty shall always stand and be able to repulse its foes (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',16,5);">16:5</A>). The prophecy is an echo of <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',9,5,6,7);">9:5-7</A>.<p class="in15">(3) The promise that a remnant of Moab, though small, shall be saved (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',16,14);">16:14</a>). Wearied of prayer to Chemosh in his high places, the prophet predicts that Moab will seek the living God (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',16,12);">16:12</A>). <p>The passage <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',17,\'1-11\');">Isa 17:1-11</a> is an oracle concerning Damascus and Northern Israel, in which Isaiah predicts the fate of the two allies<65>Syria and Ephraim<69>in the Syro-Ephraimitic war of 734 BC, with a promise that only a scanty remnant will survive (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',17,6);">17:6</a>). In <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',17,\'12-14\');">17:12-14</a>, the prophet boldly announces the complete annihilation of Judah\'s unnamed foes<65>the Assyrians. <p><a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',18,\'1-\');">Isaiah 18</a> describes Ethiopia as in great excitement, sending ambassadors hither and thither<65>possibly all the way to Jerusalem<65>ostensibly seeking aid in making preparations for war. Assyria had already taken Damascus (732 BC) and Samaria (722 BC), and consequently Egypt and Ethiopia were in fear of invasion. Isaiah bids the ambassadors to return home and quietly watch Yahweh thwart Assyria\'s self-confident attempt to subjugate Judah; and he adds that when the Ethiopians have seen God\'s hand in the coming deliverance of Judah and Jerusalem (701 BC), they will bring a present to Yahweh to His abode in Mount Zion. <p><a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',19,\'1-\');">Isaiah 19</a>, which is an oracle concerning Egypt, contains both a threat (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',19,\'1-17\');">19:1-17</a>) and a promise (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',19,\'18-25\');">19:18-25</a>), and is one of Isaiah\'s most remarkable foreign messages. Egypt is smitten and thereby led to abandon her idols for the worship of Yahweh (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',19,\'19-22\');">19:19-22</a>). Still more remarkable, it is prophesied that in that day Egypt and Assyria will join with Judah in a triple alliance of common worship to Yahweh and of blessing to others (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',19,\'23-25\');">19:23-25</a>). Isaiah\'s missionary outlook here is wonderful!<p><a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',20,\'1-\');">Isaiah 20</a> describes Sargon\'s march against Egypt and Ethiopia, containing a brief symbolic prediction of Assyria\'s victory over Egypt and Ethiopia. By donning a captive\'s garb for three years, Isaiah attempts to teach the citizens of Jerusalem that the siege of Ashdod was but a means to an end in Sargon\'s plan of campaign, and that it was sheer folly for the Egyptian party in Jerusalem, who were ever urging reliance upon Egypt, to look in that direction for help. <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',21,11,12);">Isaiah 21:11-12</a> is a brief oracle concerning Seir or Edom, "the only gentle utterance in the Old Testament upon Israel\'s hereditary foe." Edom is in great anxiety. The prophet\'s answer is disappointing, though its tone is sympathetic. <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',21,13);">Isaiah 21:13</a>ff is a brief oracle concerning Arabia. It contains a sympathetic appeal to the Temanites to give bread and water to the caravans of Dedan, who have been driven by war from their usual route of travel.<p><a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',22,\'1-\');">Isaiah 22</a> is concerning the foreign temper within theocracy. It is composed of two parts:<p>(1) an oracle "of the valley of vision," i.e. Jerusalem (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',22,\'1-14\');">22:1-14</a>); and<p>(2) a philippic against Shebna, the comptroller of the palace. Isaiah pauses, as it were, in his series of warnings to foreign nations to rebuke the foreign temper of the frivolous inhabitants of Jerusalem, and in particular Shebna, a high official in the government.<p>The reckless and God-ignoring citizens of the capital are pictured as indulging themselves in hilarious eating and drinking, when the enemy is at that very moment standing before the gates of the city. Shebna, on the other hand, seems to have been an ostentatious foreigner, perhaps a Syrian by birth, quite possibly one of the Egyptian party, whose policy was antagonistic to that of Isaiah and the king. Isaiah\'s prediction of Shebna\'s fall was evidently fulfilled (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',36,3);">36:3</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',37,2);">37:2</a>).<p><a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',23,\'1-\');">Isaiah 23</a> is concerning Tyre. In this oracle Isaiah predicts that Tyre shall be laid waste (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',23,1);">23:1</a>), her commercial glory humbled (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',23,9);">23:9</a>), her colonies become independent of her (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',23,10);">23:10</a>), and she herself forgotten for "seventy years" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',23,15);">23:15</a>); but "after the end of seventy years," her trade will revive, her business prosperity will return, and she will dedicate her gains in merchandise as holy to Yahweh (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',23,18);">23:18</a>).<p>The third great section of the Book of Isaiah embraces <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',24,\'1-\');">Isa 24-27</a>, which tell of Yahweh\'s world-judgment, issuing in the redemption of Israel. These prophecies stand closely related to <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',13,\'1-\');">Isa 13-23</a>. They express the same tender emotion as that already observed in <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',15,5);">15:5</A>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',16,11);">16:11</a>, and sum up as in one grand finale the prophet\'s oracles to Israel\'s neighbors. For religious importance they stand second to none in the Book of Isaiah, teaching the necessity of Divine discipline and the glorious redemption awaiting the faithful in Israel. They are a spiritual commentary on the great Assyrian crisis of the 8th century; they are messages of salvation intended, not for declamation, but for meditation, and were probably addressed more particularly to the prophet\'s inner circle of "disciples" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',8,16);">8:16</a>). These chapters partake of the nature of apocalypse. Strictly speaking, however, they are prophecy, not apocalypse. No one ascends into heaven or talks with an angel, as in <a onClick="return mV(\'Dan\',7,\'1-\');">Da 7</a> and <a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',4,\'1-\');">Re 4</a>. They are apocalypse only in the sense that certain things are predicted as sure to come to pass. Isaiah was fond of this kind of prophecy. He frequently lifts his reader out of the sphere of mere history to paint pictures of the far-off, distant future (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',2,2,3,4);">2:2-4</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',21,\'2-6\');">4:2-6</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',11,\'6-16\');">11:6-16</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',30,\'27-30\');">30:27-33</a>).<p>In <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',24,\'1-\');">Isa 24</a> the prophet announces a general judgment of the earth (i.e. the land of Judah), and of "the city" (collective, for Judah\'s towns), after which will dawn a better day (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',24,\'1-15\');">24:1-15</a>). The prophet fancies he hears songs of deliverance, but alas! they are premature; more judgment must follow. In <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',25,\'1-\');">Isa 25</a> the prophet transports himself to the period after the Assyrian catastrophe and, identifying himself with the redeemed, puts into their mouths songs of praise and thanksgiving for their deliverance. <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',25,\'6-8\');">Isa 25:6-8</a> describe Yahweh\'s bountiful banquet on Mount Zion to all nations, who, in keeping with <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',2,2,3,4);">2:2-4</a>, come up to Jerusalem, to celebrate "a feast of fat things," rich and marrowy. While the people are present at the banquet, Yahweh graciously removes their spiritual blindness so that they behold Him as the true dispenser of life and grace. He also abolishes violent death, that is to say, war (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',2,4);">2:4</a>) and its sad accompaniment, "tears," so that "the earth" (i.e. the land of Judah) is no longer the battlefield of the nations, but the blessed abode of the redeemed, living in peace and happiness. The prophet\'s aim is not political but religious.<p>In <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',26,\'1-19\');">Isa 26:1-19</a> Judah sings a song over Jerusalem, the impregnable city of God. The prophet, taking again his stand with the redeemed remnant of the nation, vividly portrays their thankful trust in Yahweh, who has been unto them a veritable "Rock of Ages" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',26,4);">26:4</a> margin). With hope he joyfully exclaims, Let Yahweh\'s dead ones live! Let Israel\'s dead bodies arise! Yahweh will bring life from the dead! (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',26,19);">26:19</a>). This is the first clear statement of the resurrection in the Old Testament. But it is national and restricted to Israel (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',26,14);">26:14</a>), and is merely Isaiah\'s method of expressing a hope of the return of Israel\'s faithful ones from captivity (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Hsa\',6,2);">Ho 6:2</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',37,\'1-14\');">Eze 37:1-14</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Dan\',12,2);">Da 12:2</a>).<p>In <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',26,\'20-\');">Isa 26:20</a>-<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',27,\'1-13\');">27:13</a> the prophet shows that Israel\'s chastisements are salutary. He begins by exhorting his own people, his disciples, to continue a little longer in the solitude of prayer, till God\'s wrath has shattered the world-powers (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',26,\'20-\');">26:20</a>-<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',27,1);">27:1</a>). He next predicts that the true vineyard of Yahweh will henceforth be safely guarded against the briars and thorns of foreign invasion (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',27,\'2-6\');">27:2-6</a>). And then, after showing that Yahweh\'s chastisements of Israel were light compared with His judgments upon other nations (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',27,\'7-11\');">27:7-11</a>), he promises that if Israel will only repent, Yahweh will spare no pains to gather "one by one" the remnant of His people from Assyria and Egypt (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',11,11);">11:11</a>); and together they shall once more worship Yahweh in the holy mountain at Jerusalem (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',27,12,13);">27:12,13</a>).<p>The prophet\'s fundamental standpoint in <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',24,\'1-\');">Isa 24-27</a> is the same as that of <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',2,2,3,4);">2:2-4</a> and <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',13,\'1-\');">Isa 13-23</a>. Yet the prophet not infrequently throws himself forward into the remote future, oscillating backward and forward between his own times and those of Israel\'s restoration. It is especially noteworthy how he sustains himself in a long and continued transportation of himself to the period of Israel\'s redemption. He even studies to identify himself with the new Israel which will emerge out of the present chaos of political events. His visions of Israel\'s redemption carry him in ecstasy far away into the remote future, to a time when the nation\'s sufferings are all over; so that when he writes down what he saw in vision he describes it as a discipline that is past. For example, in <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',25,\'1-8\');">25:1-8</a> the prophet, transported to the end of time, celebrates in song what he saw, and describes how the fall of the world-empire is followed by the conversion of the heathen. In <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',26,8,9);">26:8,9</a> he looks back into the past from the standpoint of the redeemed in the last days, and tells how Israel longingly waited for the manifestation of God\'s righteousness which has now taken place, while in <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',27,7,8,9);">27:7-9</a> he places himself in the midst of the nation\'s sufferings, in full view of their glorious future, and portrays how Yahweh\'s dealings with Israel have not been the punishment of wrath, but the discipline of love. This kind of apocalypse, or prophecy, indeed, was to be expected from the very beginning of the group of prophecies, which are introduced with the word "Behold!" Such a manner of introduction is peculiar to Isaiah, and of itself leads us to expect a message which is unique.<p>The practical religious value of these prophecies to Isaiah\'s own age would be very great. In a period of war and repeated foreign invasion, when but few men were left in the land (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',24,6,13);">Isa 24:6, 13</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',26,18);">26:18</a>), and Judah\'s cities were laid waste and desolate (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',24,10,12);">Isa 24:10, 12</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',25,2);">25:2</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',26,5);">26:5</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',27,10);">27:10</a>), and music and gladness were wanting (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',24,8);">Isa 24:8</a>), when the nation still clung to their idols (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',27,9);">Isa 27:9</a>) and the Assyrians\' work of destruction was still incomplete, other calamities being sure to follow (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',24,16);">Isa 24:16</a>), it would certainly be comforting to know that forgiveness was still possible (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',27,9);">Isa 27:9</a>), that Yahweh was still the keeper of His vineyard (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',27,3,4);">Isa 27:3-4</a>), that His judgments were to last but for a little moment (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',26,20);">Isa 26:20</a>), and that though His people should be scattered, He would soon carefully gather them "one by one" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',27,12,13);">Isa 27:12-13</a>), and that in company with other nations they would feast together on Mt. Zion as Yahweh\'s guests (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',25,6,7,10);">Isa 25:6-7, 10</a>), and that Jerusalem should henceforth become the center of life and religion to all nations (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',24,23);">Isa 24:23</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',25,6);">25:6</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',27,13);">27:13</a>). Such faith in Yahweh, such exhortations and such songs and confessions of the redeemed, seen in vision, would be a source of rich spiritual comfort to the few suffering saints in Judah and Jerusalem, and a guiding star to the faithful disciples of the prophet\'s most inner circle.<p><a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',28,\'1-\');">Isaiah 28-35</a> contain a cycle of prophetic warnings against alliance with Egypt, closing with a prophecy concerning Edom and a promise of Israel\'s ransom. As in <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',5,\'8-23\');">5:8-23</a>, the prophet indulges in a series of six woes:<p>(1) Woe to drunken, scoffing politicians (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',28,\'1-\');">Isa 28</a>). This is one of the great chapters of Isaiah\'s book. In the opening section (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',28,\'1-6\');">28:1-6</a>) the prophet points in warning to the proud drunkards of Ephraim whose crown (Samaria) is rapidly fading. He next turns to the scoffing politicians of Jerusalem, rebuking especially the bibulous priests who stumble in judgment, and the staggering prophets who err in vision (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',28,\'7-22\');">28:7-22</a>); closing with a most instructive parable from agriculture, teaching that God\'s judgments are not arbitrary; that as the husbandman does not plow and harrow his fields the whole year round, so God will not punish His people forever; and as the husbandman does not thresh all kinds of grain with equal severity, no more will God discipline His people beyond their deserts (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',28,\'23-29\');">28:23-29</a>).<p>(2) Woe to formalists in religion (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',29,\'1-14\');">Isa 29:1-14</a>). Isaiah\'s second woe is pronounced upon Ariel, the altar-hearth of God, i.e. Jerusalem, the sacrificial center of Israel\'s worship. David had first inaugurated the true worship of Yahweh in Zion. But now Zion\'s worship has become wholly conventional, formal, and therefore insincere; it is learned by rote (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',29,13);">29:13</a>; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',1,\'10-15\');">1:10-15</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mic\',6,\'6-8\');">Mic 6:6-8</a>). Therefore, says Isaiah, Yahweh is forced to do an extraordinary work among them, in order to bring them back to a true knowledge of Himself (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',29,14);">Isa 29:14</a>).<p>(3) Woe to those who hide their plans from God (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',29,\'15-24\');">Isa 29:15-24</a>). What their plans are, which they are devising in secret, the prophet does not yet disclose; but he doubtless alludes to their intrigues with the Egyptians and their purpose to break faith with the Assyrians, to whom they were bound by treaty to pay annual tribute. Isaiah bravely remonstrates with them for supposing that any policy will succeed which excludes the counsel and wisdom of the Holy One. They are but clay; He is the potter. At this point, though somewhat abruptly, Isaiah turns his face toward the Messianic future. In a very little while, he says, Lebanon, which is now overrun by Assyria\'s army, shall become a fruitful field, and the blind and deaf and spiritually weak shall rejoice in the Holy One of Israel.<p>(4) Woe to the pro-Egyptian party (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',30,\'1-\');">Isa 30</a>). Isaiah\'s fourth woe is directed against the rebellious politicians who stubbornly, and now openly, advocate making a league with Egypt. They have at length succeeded apparently in winning over the king to their side, and an embassy is already on its way to Egypt, bearing across the desert of the exodus rich treasures with which to purchase the friendship of their former oppressors. Isaiah now condemns what he can no longer prevent. Egypt is a Rahab "sitstill," i.e. a mythological sea-monster, menacing in mien but laggard in action. When the crisis comes, she will sit still, causing Israel only shame and confusion.<p>(5) Woe to those who trust in horses and chariots (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',31,\'1-\');">Isa 31</a>-<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',32,\'1-\');">32</a>). Isaiah\'s fifth woe is a still more vehement denunciation of those who trust in Egypt\'s horses and chariots, and disregard the Holy One of Israel. Those who do so forget that the Egyptians are but men and their horses flesh, and that mere flesh cannot avail in a conflict with spirit. Eventually Yahweh means to deliver Jerusalem, if the children of Israel will but turn from their idolatries to Him; and in that day, Assyria will be vanquished. A new era will dawn upon Judah. Society will be regenerated. The renovation will begin at the top. Conscience also will be sharpened, and moral distinctions will no longer be confused (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',32,\'1-8\');">32:1-8</a>). As Delitzsch puts it, "The aristocracy of birth and wealth will be replaced by an aristocracy of character." The careless and indifferent women, too, in that day will no longer menace the social welfare of the state (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',32,\'9-14\');">32:9-14</a>); with the outpouring of Yahweh\'s spirit an ideal commonwealth will emerge, in which social righteousness, peace, plenty and security will abound (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',32,\'15-20\');">32:15-20</a>).<p>(6) Woe to the Assyrian destroyer (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',33,\'1-\');">Isa 33</a>). Isaiah\'s last woe is directed against the treacherous spoiler himself, who has already laid waste the cities of Judah, and is now beginning to lay siege to Jerusalem (701 BC). The prophet prays, and while he prays, behold! the mighty hosts of the Assyrians are routed and the long-besieged but now triumphant inhabitants of Jerusalem rush out like locusts upon the spoil which the vanishing adversary has been forced to leave behind. The destroyer\'s plan to reduce Jerusalem has come to naught. The whole earth beholds the spectacle of Assyria\'s defeat and is filled with awe and amazement at the mighty work of Yahweh. Only the righteous may henceforth dwell in Jerusalem. Their eyes shall behold the Messiah-king in his beauty, reigning no longer like Hezekiah over a limited and restricted territory, but over a land unbounded, whose inhabitants enjoy Yahweh\'s peace and protection, and are free from all sin, and therefore from all sickness (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',33,\'17-24\');">33:17-24</a>). With this beautiful picture of the Messianic future, the prophet\'s woes find an appropriate conclusion. Isaiah never pronounced a woe without adding a corresponding promise.<p>In <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',34,\'1-\');">Isa 34</a>-<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',35,\'1-\');">35</a>, the prophet utters a fierce cry for justice against "all the nations," but against Edom in particular. His tone is that of judgment. Edom is guilty of high crimes against Zion (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',34,8);">34:8</a>f), therefore she is doomed to destruction. On the other hand, the scattered ones of Israel shall return from exile and "obtain gladness and joy, and sorrow and sighing shall flee away" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',35,\'1-\');">Isa 35</a>).<p><a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',36,\'1-\');">Isaiah 36-39</a> contain history, prophecy and song intermingled. These chapters serve both as an appendix to <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',1,\'1-\');">Isa 1-35</a> and as an introduction to <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',40,\'1-\');">Isa 40-66</a>. In them three important historical events are narrated, in which Isaiah was a prominent factor:<p>(1) the double attempt of Sennacherib to obtain possession of Jerusalem (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',36,\'1-\');">Isa 36</a>-<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',37,\'1-\');">37</a>);<p>(2) Hezekiah\'s sickness and recovery (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',38,\'1-\');">Isa 38</a>);<p>(3) the embassy of Merodach-baladan (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',39,\'1-\');">Isa 39</a>).<p>With certain important omissions and insertions these chapters are duplicated almost verbatim in <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',18,\'13-\');">2Ki 18:13-20:19</a>. They are introduced with the chronological note, "Now it came to pass in the fourteenth year of king Hezekiah." Various attempts have been made to solve the mystery of this date; for, if the author is alluding to the siege of 701 BC, difficulty arises, because that event occurred not in Hezekiah\'s "14th" but 26th year, according to the Biblical chronology of his life; or, if with some we date Hezekiah\'s accession to the throne of Judah as 720 BC, then the siege of 701 BC occurred, as is evident, in Hezekiah\'s 19th year. It is barely possible of course that "the 14th year of king Hezekiah" was the 14th of the "15 years" which were added to his life, but more probably it alludes to the 14th of his reign. On the whole it is better to take the phrase as a general chronological caption for the entire section, with special reference to <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',38,\'1-\');">Isa 38</a>, which tells of Hezekiah\'s sickness, which actually fell in his 14th year (714 BC), and which, coupled with Sargon\'s expected presence at Ashdod, was the great personal crisis of the king\'s life.<p>Sennacherib made two attempts in 701 BC to reduce Jerusalem: one from Lachish with an army headed by the Rabshakeh (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',36,\'2-\');">Isa 36:2</a>-<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',37,\'1-8\');">37:8</a>), and another from Libnah with a threat conveyed by messengers (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',37,9);">Isa 37:9</a>). The brief section contained in <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',18,\'14-16\');">2Ki 18:14-16</a> is omitted from between verses <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',36,1,2);">1 and 2</a> of <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',36,\'1-\');">Isa 36</a>, because it was not the prophet\'s aim at this time to recount the nation\'s humiliation. Isaiah\'s last "word" concerning Assyria (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',37,\'21-35\');">Isa 37:21-35</a>) is one of the prophet\'s grandest predictions. It is composed of three parts:<p>(1) a taunt-song, in elegiac rhythm, on the inevitable humiliation of Sennacherib (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',37,\'22-29\');">Isa 37:22-29</a>);<p>(2) a short poem in different rhythm, directed to Hezekiah, in order to encourage his faith (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',37,\'30-32\');">Isa 37:30-32</a>);<p>(3) a definite prediction, in less elevated style, of the sure deliverance of Jerusalem (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',37,\'33-35\');">Isa 37:33-35</a>). Isaiah\'s prediction was literally fulfilled.<p>The section <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',38,\'9-20\');">Isa 38:9-20</a> contains Hezekiah\'s Song of Thanksgiving, in which he celebrates his recovery from some mortal sickness. It is a beautiful plaintive "writing"; omitted altogether by the author of the Book of Kings (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',20,\'1-\');">2Ki 20</a>). Hezekiah was sick in 714 BC. Two years later Merodach-baladan, the veteran arch-enemy of Assyria, having heard of his wonderful recovery, sent letters and a present to congratulate him. Doubtless, also, political motives prompted the recalcitrant Babylonian. But be that as it may, Hezekiah was greatly flattered by the visit of Merodach-baladan\'s envoys, and, in a moment of weakness, showed them all his royal treasures. This was an inexcusable blunder, as the sight of his many precious possessions would naturally excite Babylonian cupidity to possess Jerusalem. Isaiah not only solemnly condemned the king\'s conduct, but he announced with more than ordinary insight that the days were coming when all the accumulated resources of Jerusalem would be carried away to Babylon (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',39,\'3-6\');">39:3-6</A>; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Mic\',4,10);">Mic 4:10</a>). This final prediction of judgment is the most marvelous of all Isaiah\'s minatory utterances, because he distinctly asserts that, not the Assyrians, who were then at the height of their power, but the Babylonians, shall be the instruments of the Divine vengeance in consummating the destruction of Jerusalem. There is absolutely no reason for doubting the genuineness of this prediction. In it, indeed, we have a prophetic basis for <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',40,\'1-\');">Isa 40-66</a>, which follow.<p>Coming now to <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',40,\'1-\');">Isa 40-66</a>, we have prophecies of comfort, salvation, and of the future glory awaiting Israel. These chapters naturally fall into three sections:<p>(1) <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',40,\'1-\');">Isa 40-48</a>, announcing deliverance from captivity through Cyrus;<p>(2) <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',49,\'1-\');">Isa 49-57</a>, describing the sufferings of the "Servant" of Yahweh, this section ending like the former with the refrain, "There is no peace, saith my God, to the wicked" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',57,21);">57:21</a>; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',48,22);">48:22</a>);<p>(3) <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',58,\'1-\');">Isa 58-66</a>, announcing the final abolition of all national distinctions and the future glory of the people of God. <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',60,\'1-\');">Isaiah 60</a> is the characteristic chapter of this section, as <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',53,\'1-\');">Isa 53</a> is of the second, and <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',40,\'1-\');">Isa 40</a> of the first.<p>Entering into greater detail, the first section (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',40,\'1-\');">Isa 40-48</a>) demonstrates the deity of Yahweh through His unique power to predict. The basis of the comfort which the prophet announces is Israel\'s incomparable God (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',40,\'1-\');">Isa 40</a>). Israel\'s all-powerful Yahweh in comparison with other gods is incomparable. In the prologue (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',40,\'1-11\');">Isa 40:1-11</a>) he hears the four voices:<p>(1) of grace (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',40,1,2);">Isa 40:1-2</a>);<p>(2) of prophecy (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',40,\'3-5\');">Isa 40:3-5</a>);<p>(3) of faith (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',40,\'6-8\');">Isa 40:6-8</a>), and<p>(4) of evangelism (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',40,\'9-11\');">Isa 40:9-11</a>).<p>Then, after exalting the unique character of Israel\'s all-but-forgotten God (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',40,\'12-26\');">Isa 40:12-26</a>), he exhorts them not to suppose that Yahweh is ignorant of, or indifferent to, Israel\'s misery. Israel must wait for salvation. They are clamoring for deliverance prematurely. Only wait, he repeats; for with such a God, Israel has no reason to despond (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',40,\'27-31\');">Isa 40:27-31</a>).<p>In <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',41,\'1-\');">Isa 41</a> he declares that the supreme proof of Yahweh\'s sole deity is His power to predict. He inquires, "Who hath raised up one from the east?" Though the hero is left unnamed, Cyrus is doubtless in the prophet\'s mind (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',44,28);">44:28</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',45,1);">45:1</a>). He is not, however, already appearing upon the horizon of history as some fancy, but rather predicted as sure to come. The verb tenses which express completed action are perfects of certainty, and are used in precisely the same manner as those in <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',3,8);">3:8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',5,13);">5:13</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',21,9);">21:9</a>. The answer to the inquiry is, "I, Yahweh, the first, and with the last, I am he" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',41,4);">41:4</a>). Israel is Yahweh\'s servant. The dialogue continues; but it is no longer between Yahweh and the nations, as in <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',41,\'1-7\');">Isa 41:1-7</a>, but between Yahweh and the idols (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',41,\'21-29\');">41:21-29</a>). Addressing the dumb idols, Yahweh is represented as saying, Predict something, if you are real deities. As for myself, I am going to raise up a hero from the north who will subdue all who oppose him. And I announce my purpose now in advance "from the beginning," "beforetime," before there is the slightest ground for thinking that such a hero exists or ever will exist (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',41,26);">41:26</a>), in order that the future may verify my prediction, and prove my sole deity. I, Yahweh, alone know the future. In <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',41,\'21-29\');">41:25-29</a>, the prophet even projects himself into the future and speaks from the standpoint of the fulfillment of his prediction. This, as we saw above, was a characteristic of Isaiah in <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',24,\'1-\');">Isa 24-27</a>.<p>In <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',42,\'1-\');">Isa 42:1</a>-<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',43,\'1-13\');">43:13</a> the prophet announces also a spiritual agent of redemption, namely, Yahweh\'s "Servant." Not only a temporal agent (Cyrus) shall be raised up to mediate Israel\'s redemption, which is the first step in the process of the universal salvation contemplated, but a spiritual factor. Yahweh\'s "Servant" shall be employed in bringing the good tidings of salvation to the exiles and to the Gentiles also. In <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',42,\'1-9\');">42:1-9</a> the prophet describes this ideal figure and the work he will execute. The glorious future evokes a brief hymn of thanksgiving for the redemption which the prophet beholds in prospect (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',42,\'10-17\');">42:10-17</a>). Israel has long been blind and deaf to Yahweh\'s instructions (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',41,18,19);">41:18,19</A>), but now Yahweh is determined to redeem them even at the cost of the most opulent nations of the world, that they may publish His law to all peoples (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',42,\'18-\');">42:18</a>-<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',43,\'1-13\');">43:13</a>).<p>In <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',13,\'14-\');">Isa 13:14-44:23</a> forgiveness is made the pledge of deliverance. Yahweh\'s determination to redeem Israel is all of grace. Salvation is a gift. Yahweh has blotted out their transgressions for His own sake (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',43,25);">43:25</a>). "This passage," Dillmann observes, "marks the highest point of grace in the Old Testament." Gods of wood and stone are nonentities. Those who manufacture idols are blind and dull of heart, and are "feeding on ashes." The section <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',44,\'9-20\');">44:9-20</a> is a most remorseless exposure of the folly of idolatry.<p>In <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',44,\'24-\');">Isa 44:24</a>-<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',45,\'1-25\');">45:25</a> the prophet at length names the hero of Israel\'s salvation and describes his mission. He is Cyrus. He shall build Jerusalem and lay the foundations of the temple (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',44,28);">44:28</a>); he shall also subdue nations and let the exiles go free (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',45,1,13);">45:1,13</a>). He speaks of Cyrus in the most extraordinary, almost extravagant terms. He is Yahweh\'s "shepherd" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',44,28);">44:28</a>), he is also Yahweh\'s "anointed," i.e. Messiah (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',45,1);">45:1</a>), "the man of my counsel" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',46,11);">46:11</a>), whom Yahweh has called by name, and surnamed without his ever knowing Him (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',45,3,4);">45:3,4</a>); the one "whom Yahweh loveth" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',48,14);">48:14</a>), whose right hand Yahweh upholdeth (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',45,1);">45:1</a>), and who will perform all Yahweh\'s pleasure (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',44,8);">44:28</a>); though but "a ravenous bird from the east (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',46,11);">46:11</a>). The vividness with which the prophet speaks of Cyrus leads some to suppose that the latter is already upon the horizon. This, however, is a mistake. Scarcely would a contemporary have spoken in such terms of the real Cyrus of 538 BC. The prophet regards him (i.e. the Cyrus of his own prediction, not the Cyrus of history) as the fulfillment of predictions spoken long before. That is to say, in one and the same context, Cyrus is both predicted and treated as a proof that prediction is being fulfilled (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',44,\'24-28\');">44:24-28</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',45,21);">45:21</A>). Such a phenomenon in prophecy can best be explained by supposing that the prophet projected himself into the future from an earlier age. Most extraordinary of all, in <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',45,\'14-17\');">45:14-17</a>, the prophet soars in imagination until he sees, as a result of Cyrus\' victories, the conquered nations renouncing their idols, and attracted to Yahweh as the Saviour of all mankind (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',45,22);">45:22</a>). On any theory of origin, the predictive element in these prophecies is written large.<p><a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',46,\'1-\');">Isaiah 46</a>-<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',47,\'1-\');">47</a> describe further the distinctive work of Cyrus, though Cyrus himself is but once referred to. Particular emphasis is laid on the complete collapse of the Babylonian religion; the prophet being apparently more concerned with the humiliation of Babylon\'s idols than with the fall of the city itself. Of course the destruction of the city would imply the defeat of her gods, as also the emancipation of Israel. But here again all is in the future; in fact Yahweh\'s incomparable superiority and unique deity are proven by His power to predict "the end from the beginning" and bring His prediction to pass (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',46,10,11);">46:10,11</a>).<p><a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',47,\'1-\');">Isaiah 47</a> is a dirge over the downfall of the imperial city, strongly resembling the taunt-song over the king of Babylon in <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',14,\'4-21\');">14:4-21</a>.<p><a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',48,\'1-\');">Isaiah 48</a> is a hortatory summary and recapitulation of the argument contained in <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',40,\'1-\');">Isa 40-47</a>, the prophet again emphasizing the following points:<p>(1) Yahweh\'s unique power to predict;<p>(2) that salvation is of grace;<p>(3) that Cyrus\' advent will be the crowning proof of Yahweh\'s abiding presence among His people;<p>(4) that God\'s chastisements were only disciplinary; and<p>(5) that even now there is hope, if they will but accept of Yahweh\'s proffered salvation. Alas! that there is no peace or salvation for the godless (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',48,\'20-22\');">48:20-22</a>). Thus ends the first division of Isaiah\'s remarkable "vision" of Israel\'s deliverance from captivity through Cyrus.<p>The second section (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',19,\'1-\');">Isa 49-57</a>) deals with the spiritual agent of salvation, Yahweh\'s suffering "Servant." With <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',49,\'1-\');">Isa 49</a> the prophet leaves off attempting further to prove the sole deity of Yahweh by means of prediction, and drops entirely his description of Cyrus\' victories and the overthrow of Babylon, in order to set forth in greater detail the character and mission of the suffering "Servant" of Yahweh. Already, in <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',40,\'1-\');">Isa 40-48</a>, he had alluded several times to this unique and somewhat enigmatical personage, speaking of him both collectively and as an individual (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',41,\'8-10\');">41:8-10</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',42,\'1-9\',\'10-22\');">42:1-9, 18-22</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',43,10);">43:10</A>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',44,\'1-5\',\'21-28\');">44:1-5, 21-28</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',45,4);">45:4</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',48,\'20-22\');">48:20-22</a>); but now he defines with greater precision both his prophetic and priestly functions, his equipment for his task, his sufferings and humiliation, and also his final exaltation. Altogether in these prophecies he mentions the "Servant" some 20 times. But there are four distinctively so-called "Servant-Songs" in which the prophet seems to rise above the collective masses of all Israel to at least a personification of the pious within Israel, or better, to a unique Person embodying within himself all that is best in the Israel within Israel. They are the following:<p>(1) <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',42,\'1-9\');">42:1-9</a>, a poem descriptive of the Servant\'s gentle manner and world-wide mission;<p>(2) <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',49,\'1-13\');">49:1-13</a>, describing the Servant\'s mission and spiritual success;<p>(3) <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',50,\'4-11\');">50:4-11</A>, the Servant\'s soliloquy concerning His perfection through suffering; and<p>(4) <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',52,\'13-\');">52:13</A>-<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',53,\'1-12\');">53:12</a>, the Servant\'s vicarious suffering and ultimate exaltation.<p>In this last of the four "Servant-Songs" we reach the climax of the prophet\'s inspired symphony, the acme of Hebrew Messianic hope. The profoundest thoughts in the Old Testament revelation are to be found in this section. It is a vindication of the "Servant," so clear and so true, and wrought out with such pathos and potency, that it holds first place among Messianic predictions. Polycarp called it "the golden passional of the Old Testament." It has been realized in Jesus Christ.<p><a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',58,\'1-\');">Isaiah 58-66</a> describe the future glory of the people of God. Having described in <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',40,\'1-\');">Isa 40-48</a> the temporal agent of Israel\'s salvation, Cyrus, and in <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',49,\'1-\');">Isa 49-57</a> the spiritual agent of their salvation, the "Servant" of Yahweh, the prophet proceeds in this last section to define the conditions on which salvation may be enjoyed. He begins, as before, with a double imperative, "Cry aloud, spare not" (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',40,1);">40:1</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',49,1);">49:1</a>).<p>In <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',58,\'1-\');">Isa 58</a> he discusses true fasting and faithful Sabbath observance.<p>In <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',59,\'1);">Isa 59</a> he beseeches Israel to forsake their sins. It is their sins, he urges, which have hidden Yahweh\'s face and retarded the nation\'s salvation. In <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',59,9);">59:9</a>ff the prophet identifies himself with the people and leads them in their devotions. Yahweh is grieved over Israel\'s forlorn condition, and, seeing their helplessness, He arms himself like a warrior to interfere judicially (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',59,\'15-19\');">59:15-19</A>). Israel shall be redeemed. With them as the nucleus of a new nation, Yahweh will enter anew into covenant relation, and put His Spirit upon them, which will abide with them henceforth and forever (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',59,20,21);">59:20-21</a>).<p><a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',60,\'1-\');">Isaiah 60</a>-<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',61,\'1-\');">61</a> describe the future blessedness of Zion. The long-looked-for "light" (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',59,9);">59:9</a>) begins to dawn: "Arise, shine; for thy light is come, and the glory of Yahweh is risen upon thee" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',60,1);">60:1</a>). The prophet pauses at this point to paint a picture of the redeemed community. As in <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',2,3,4);">2:3,4</a>, the Gentiles are seen flocking to Zion, which becomes the mistress of the nations. Foreigners build her walls, and her gates are kept open continually without fear of siege. The Gentiles acknowledge that Zion is the spiritual center of the world. Even Israel\'s oppressors regard her as "the city of Yahweh," as "an eternal excellency," in which Yahweh sits as its everlasting light (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',60,\'10-22\');">60:10-22</a>).<p>In <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',61,\'1-\');">Isa 61</a>, which Drummond has called "the program of Christianity," the "Servant" of Yahweh is again introduced, though anonymously, as the herald of salvation (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',61,\'1-3\');">61:1-3</A>). The gospel monologue of the "Servant" is followed by a promise of the restoration and blessedness of Jerusalem (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',61,\'4-11\');">61:4-11</a>). Thus the prophecy moves steadily forward toward its goal in Jesus Christ (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',4,\'18-21\');">Lu 4:18-21</a>).<p>In <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',62,\'1-\');">Isa 62:1</A>-<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',63,\'1-6\');">63:6</a> Zion\'s salvation is described as drawing near. The nations will be spectators of the great event. A new name which will better symbolize her true character shall be given to Zion, namely, Hephzibah, "My delight is in her"; for Jerusalem shall no more be called desolate. On the other hand, Zion\'s enemies will all be vanquished. In a brief poem of peculiar dramatic beauty (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',63,\'1-6\');">63:1-6</a>), the prophet portrays Yahweh\'s vengeance, as a victorious warrior, upon all those who retard Israel\'s deliverance. Edom in particular was Israel\'s insatiate foe. Hence, the prophet represents Yahweh\'s judgment of the nations as taking place on Edom\'s unhallowed soil. Yahweh, whose mighty arm has wrought salvation, returns as victor, having slain all of Israel\'s foes.<p>In <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',63,\'7-\');">Isa 63:7</a>-<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',64,\'1-12\');">64:12</a>, Yahweh\'s "servants" resort to prayer. They appeal to Yahweh as the Begetter and Father of the nations (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',63,16);">63:16</A>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',64,8);">64:8</a>). With this thought of the fatherhood of God imbedded in his language, Isaiah had opened his very first oracle to Judah and Jerusalem (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',1,2);">1:2</a>). As the prayer proceeds, the language becomes increasingly tumultuous. The people are thrown into despair because Yahweh seems to have abandoned them altogether (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',63,19);">63:19</A>). They recognize that the condition of Jerusalem is desperate. "Our holy and our beautiful house, where our fathers praised thee, is burned with fire; and all our pleasant places are laid waste" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',64,11);">64:11</A>). Such language, however, is the language of fervent prayer and must not be taken with rigid literalness, as <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',63,18);">63:18</a> and <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',3,8);">3:8</A> plainly show.<p>Finally, in <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',65,\'1-\');">Isa 65</A>-<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',66,\'1-\');">66</a>, Yahweh answers His people\'s supplications, distinguishing sharply between His own "servants" and Israel\'s apostates. Only His chosen "seed" shall be delivered (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',65,9);">65:9</a>). Those who have obdurately provoked Yahweh by sacrificing in gardens (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',65,3);">65:3</A>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',66,17);">66:17</A>), offering libations to Fortune and Destiny (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',65,11);">65:11</A>), sitting among the graves to obtain oracles from the dead, and, like the Egyptians, eating swine\'s flesh and broth of abominable things which were supposed to possess magical properties, lodging in vaults or crypts in which heathen mysteries were celebrated (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',65,4);">65:4</A>), and at the same time fancying that by celebrating such heathen mysteries they are holier than others and thereby disqualified to discharge the ordinary duties of life (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',65,5);">65:5</a>)<29>such Yahweh designs to punish, measuring their work into their bosom and destroying them utterly with the sword (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',65,7,12);">65:7,12</A>). On the other hand, the "servants" of Yahweh shall inherit His holy mountains. They shall rejoice and sing for joy of heart, and bless themselves in the God of Amen, i.e. in the God of Truth (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',65,9,14,16);">65:9,14,16</a>). Yahweh will create new heavens and a new earth, men will live and grow old like the patriarchs; they will possess houses and vineyards and enjoy them; for an era of idyllic peace will be ushered in with the coming of the Messianic age, in which even the natures of wild animals will be changed and the most rapacious of wild animals will live together in harmony (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',65,\'17-25\');">65:17-25</A>). Religion will become spiritual and decentralized, mystic cults will disappear, incredulous scoffers will be silenced. Zion\'s population will be marvelously multiplied, and the people will be comforted and rejoice (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',66,\'1-14\');">66:1-14</a>). Furthermore, all nations will flock to Zion to behold Yahweh\'s glory, and from one new moon to another, and from one Sabbath to another, all flesh will come up to worship in Jerusalem (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',66,\'15-23\');">66:15-23</a>).<p>It is evident that the Book of Isaiah closes, practically as it begins, with a polemic against false worship, and the alternate reward of the righteous and punishment of the wicked. The only essential difference between the prophet\'s earlier and later oracles is this: Isaiah, in his riper years, on the basis of nearly half a century\'s experience as a preacher, paints a much brighter eschatological picture than was possible in his early ministry. His picture of the Messianic age not only transcends those of his contemporaries in the 8th century BC, but he penetrates regions beyond the spiritual horizon of any and all Old Testament seers. Such language as that contained in <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',66,1,2);">Isa 66:1-2</a>, in particular, anticipates the great principle enunciated by Jesus in <a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',4,24);">Joh 4:24</a>, namely, that "God is a Spirit: and they that worship him must worship in spirit and truth." To attempt to date such oracles as these on the basis of internal evidence is an absolute impossibility. Humanly speaking, one age could have produced such revelations quite as easily as another. But no age could have produced them apart from the Divine spirit.``152';
isbe[4664]='Isaiah, 8-9`8. Isaiah\'s Prophecies Chronologically Arranged:<P>The editorial arrangement of Isaiah\'s prophecies is very suggestive. In the main they stand in chronological order. That is to say, all the dates mentioned are in strict historical sequence; e.g. <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',6,1);">Isa 6:1</a>, "In the year that king Uzziah died" (740 BC); <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',7,1);">7:1</A>, "In the days of Ahaz" (736ff BC); <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',14,28);">14:28</A>, "In the year that king Ahaz died" (727 BC); <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',20,1);">20:1</A>, "In the year that Tartan came unto Ashdod, when Sargon the king of Assyria sent him" (711 BC); <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',36,1);">36:1</A>, "In the 14th year of king Hezekiah" (701 BC). These points are all in strict chronological order. Taken in groups, also, Isaiah\'s great individual messages are likewise arranged in true historical sequence; thus, <span class="noTag">Isa 1-6</span> for the most part belong to the last years of Jotham\'s reign (740-736 BC); <span class="noTag">Isa 7-12</span> to the period of the Syro-Ephraimitic war (734 BC); <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',20,\'1-\');">Isa 20</a>, to the year of Sargon\'s siege of Ashdod (711 BC); <span class="noTag">Isa 28-32</span>, to the invasion of Judah by Sennacherib (701 BC); while the distinctively promissory portions (<span class="noTag">Isa 40-66</span>), as is natural, conclude the collection. In several minor instances, however, there are notable departures from a rigid chronological order. For example, <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',6,\'1-\');">Isa 6</a>, which describes the prophet\'s initial call to preach, follows the rebukes and denunciations of <span class="noTag">Isa 1-5</span>; but this is probably due to its being used by the prophet as an apologetic. Again, the oracles against foreign nations in <span class="noTag">Isa 13-23</span> belong to various dates, being grouped together, in part, at least, because of their subject-matter. Likewise, <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',38,\'1-\');">Isa 38</a>-<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',39,\'1-\');">39</a>, which give an account of Hezekiah\'s sickness and Merodach-baladan\'s embassy to him upon his recovery (714-712 BC), chronologically precede <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',36,\'1-\');">Isa 36</A>-<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',37,\'1-\');">37</a>, which describe Sennacherib\'s investment of Jerusalem (701 BC).These points are all in strict chronological order. Taken in groups, also, Isaiah\'s great individual messages are likewise arranged in true historical sequence; thus, <span class="noTag">Isa 1-6</span> for the most part belong to the last years of Jotham\'s reign (740-736 BC); <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',7,\'1-\');">Isa 7-12</a> to the period of the Syro-Ephraimitic war (734 BC); <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',20,\'1-\');">Isa 20</a>, to the year of Sargon\'s siege of Ashdod (711 BC); <span class="noTag">Isa 28-32</span>, to the invasion of Judah by Sennacherib (701 BC); while the distinctively promissory portions (<span class="noTag">Isa 40-66</span>), as is natural, conclude the collection. In several minor instances, however, there are notable departures from a rigid chronological order. For example, <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',6,\'1-\');">Isa 6</a>, which describes the prophet\'s initial call to preach, follows the rebukes and denunciations of <span class="noTag">Isa 1-5</span>; but this is probably due to its being used by the prophet as an apologetic. Again, the oracles against foreign nations in <span class="noTag">Isa 13-23</span> belong to various dates, being grouped together, in part, at least, because of their subject-matter. Likewise, <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',38,\'1-\');">Isa 38</a>-<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',39,\'1-\');">39</a>, which give an account of Hezekiah\'s sickness and Merodach-baladan\'s embassy to him upon his recovery (714-712 BC), chronologically precede <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',36,\'1-\');">Isa 36</A>-<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',37,\'1-\');">37</a>, which describe Sennacherib\'s investment of Jerusalem (701 BC). This chiastic order, however, in the last instance, is due probably to the desire to make <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',36,\'1-\');">Isa 36</A>-<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',37,\'1-\');">37</a> (about Sennacherib, king of Assyria) an appropriate conclusion to <span class="noTag">Isa 1-35</span> (which say much about Assyria), and, on the other hand, to make <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',38,\'1-\');">Isa 38</A>-<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',39,\'1-\');">39</a> (about Merodach-baladan of Babylon) a suitable introduction to <span class="noTag">Isa 40-66</span> (which speak of Babylon). <P>The attempt to date Isaiah\'s individual messages on the basis of internal criteria alone, is a well-nigh impossible task; and yet no other kind of evidence is available. Often passages stand side by side which point in opposite directions; in fact, certain sections seem to be composed of various fragments dating from different periods, as though prophecies widely separated from each other in time had been fused together. In such cases much weight should be given to those features which point to an early origin, because of the predominatingly predictive character of Isaiah\'s writings.<P>Isaiah always had an eye upon the future. His semi-historical and biographical prophecies are naturally the easiest to date; on the other hand, the form of his Messianic and eschatological discourses is largely due to his own personal temper and psychology, rather than to the historical circumstances of the time. The following is a table of Isaiah\'s prophecies chronologically arranged:<p>Chapters; Written Probably; BC</p><p>1-6...................................c 740-736</p><p>7-12.................................c 734-732</p><p>15:1-16; 12; 17.................c 734</p><p>13:1-14:23...between ..........732-722</p><p>14:24-27......between ..........732-722</p><p>14:28-32...........................c 727</p><p>23.......shortly before...........722</p><p>24-27...shortly before..........722</p><p>28:1-6...shortly before.........722</p><p>19....................................c 720</p><p>38....................................c 714</p><p>29....................................c 712</p><p>21:11,12,13-17.................c 711</p><p>22:15-25...........................c 711</p><p>21:1-10.............................c 709</p><p>22:1-10.............................c 709</p><p>28:7-33:24...shortly before...701</p><p>18.....................................c 701</p><p>34-35................................c 701</p><p>36-37...soon after................701</p><p>40-66...soon after................701</p><P>The prophet\'s standpoint in <span class="noTag">Isa 40-66</span> is that of Isaiah himself. For if Isaiah, before 734 BC, in passages confessedly his own, could describe Judah\'s cities as already "burned with fire," Zion as deserted as "a booth in a vineyard" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',1,7,8);">1:7,8</A>), Jerusalem as "ruined," Judah as "fallen" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',3,8);">3:8</A>), and Yahweh\'s people as already "gone into captivity" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',5,13);">5:13</A>), surely after all the destruction and devastation wrought on Judah by Assyria in the years 722, 720, 711, and 701 BC, the same prophet with the same poetic license could declare that the temple had been "trodden down" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',63,18);">63:18</A>) and "burned with fire," and all Judah\'s pleasant places "laid waste" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',64,11);">64:11</A>); and, in perfect keeping with his former promises, could add that "they shall repair the waste cities, the desolations of many generations" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',61,4);">61:4</A>; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',44,26);">44:26</A>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',58,12);">58:12</A>).<P>Or again, if Isaiah the son of Amoz could comfort Jerusalem with promises of protection when the Assyrian (734 BC) should come like an overflowing river (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',8,9,10);">8:9,10</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',10,24,25);">10:24,25</a>); and conceive a beautiful parable of comfort like that contained in <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',28,\'23-29\');">28:23-29</A>; and insert among his warnings and exhortations of the gloomy year 702 BC so many precious promises of a brighter future which was sure to follow Sennacherib\'s invasion (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',19,\'17-24\');">29:17-24</A>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',30,\'29-33\');">30:29-33</A>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',31,8,9);">31:8,9</a>); and, in the very midst of the siege of 701 BC, conceive of such marvelous Messianic visions as those in <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',33,\'17-24\');">33:17-24</a> with which to dispel the dismay of his compatriots, surely the same prophet might be conceived of as seizing the opportunity to comfort those in Zion who survived the great catastrophe of 701 BC. The prophet who had done the one was prepared to do the other.<P>There was one circumstance of the prophet\'s position after 701 BC which was new, and which is too often overlooked, a circumstance which he could not have employed to anything like the same degree as an argument in enforcing his message prior to the Assyrian\'s overthrow and the deliverance of Jerusalem. It was this: the fulfillment of former predictions as proof of Yahweh\'s deity. From such passages we obtain an idea of the prophet\'s true historical position (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',42,9);">Isa 42:9</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',44,8);">44:8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',45,21);">45:21</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',46,10);">46:10</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',48,3);">48:3</a>). Old predictions have already been fulfilled (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',6,\'11-13\');">Isa 6:11-13</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',29,8);">29:8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',30,31);">30:31</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',31,8);">31:8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',37,7,30);">37:7, 30</a>), on the basis of which the prophet ventures to predict new and even more astounding things concerning the overthrow of Babylon by Cyrus, and Israel\'s deliverance through him from their captors (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',43,6);">Isa 43:6</a>). Isaiah\'s book is signally full of predictions (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',7,8,10);">Isa 7:8, 10</a>ff; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',8,4,8);">8:4,8</A>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',9,11,12);">9:11,12</A>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',10,26);">10:26</A>ff; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',14,\'24-27\');">14:24-27</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',16,14);">16:14</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',17,9,12,13,14);">17:9,12-14</A>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',20,4,5,6);">20:4-6</A>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',21,16);">21:16</A>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',22,19);">22:19</A>ff; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',23,15);">23:15</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',38,5);">38:5</A>), some of which, written down and sealed, were evidently committed by the prophet to his inner circle of disciples to be used and verified by them in subsequent crises (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',8,16);">Isa 8:16</a>).Failure to recognize this element in Isaiah\'s book is fatal to a true interpretation of the prophet\'s real message.<P>9. The Critical Problem:<P>"For about twenty-five centuries" as A. B. Davidson observes (Old Testament Prophecy,1903,244), "no one dreamed of doubting that Isaiah the son of Amoz was the author of every part of the book that goes under his name; and those who still maintain the unity of authorship are accustomed to point, with satisfaction, to the unanimity of the Christian church on the matter, till a few German scholars arose, about a century ago, and called in question the unity of this book." Tradition is unanimous in favor of the unity of the book.<P>(1) The History of Criticism.<P>The critical disintegration of the book began with Koppe, who in 1780 first doubted the genuineness of <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',50,\'1-\');">Isa 50</a>. Nine years later Doederlein suspected the whole of <span class="noTag">Isa 40-66</span>. He was followed by Rosenmueller, who was the first to deny to Isaiah the prophecy against Babylon in <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',13,\'1-\');">13:1</A>-<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',14,\'1-23\');">14:23</A>. Eichhorn, at the beginning of the last century, further eliminated the oracle against Tyre in <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',23,\'1-\');">Isa 23</a>, and he, with Gesenius and Ewald, also denied the Isaianic origin of <span class="noTag">Isa 24-27</span>. Gesenius also ascribed to some unknown prophet <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',15,\'1-\');">Isa 15</a> and <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',16,\'1-\');">16</A>. Rosenmueller then went farther, and pronounced against <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',34,\'1-\');">Isa 34</a> and <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',35,\'1-\');">35</A>, and not long afterward (1840) Ewald questioned <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',12,\'1-\');">Isa 12</a> and <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',33,\'1-\');">33</A>. Thus by the middle of the 19th century some 37 or 38 chapters were rejected as no part of Isaiah\'s actual writings. In 1879-80, the celebrated Leipzig professor, Franz Delitzsch, who for years previous had defended the genuineness of the entire book, finally yielded to the modern critical position, and in the new edition of his commentary published in 1889, interpreted <span class="noTag">Isa 40-66</span>, though with considerable hesitation, as coming from the close of the period of Babylonian exile. About the same time (1888-90), Drs. Driver and G.A. Smith gave popular impetus to similar views in Great Britain. Since 1890, the criticism of Isaiah has been even more trenchant and microscopic than before. Duhm, Stade, Guthe, Hackmann, Cornill and Marti on the Continent, and Cheyne, Whitehouse, Box, Glazebrook, Kennett, Gray, Peake, and others in Great Britain and America have questioned portions which hitherto were supposed to be genuine.<P>(2) The Disintegration of "Deutero-Isaiah."<P>Even the unity of <span class="noTag">Isa 40-66</span>, which were supposed to be the work of the "Second" or "Deutero-Isaiah," is now given up. What prior to 1890 was supposed to be the unique product of some celebrated but anonymous seer who lived in Babylonia about 550 BC is today commonly divided and subdivided and in large part distributed among various writers from Cyrus to Simon (538-164 BC). At first it was thought sufficient to separate <span class="noTag">sa 63-66</span> as a later addition to "Deutero-Isaiah\'s" prophecies; but more recently it has become the fashion to distinguish between <span class="noTag">Isa 40-55</span>, which are claimed to have been written by "Deutero-Isaiah" in Babylonia about 549-538 BC, and <span class="noTag">Isa 56-66</span>, which are now alleged to have been composed by a "Trito-Isaiah" about 460-445 BC.(3) Recent Views.<P>Among the latest to investigate the problem is Professor R.H. Kennett of Cambridge, English, who, in his Schweich Lectures (The Composition of the Book of Isaiah in the Light of History and Archaeology,1910,84ff), sums up the results of investigations as follows:<P>(a) all of <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',3,\'1-\');">Isa 3</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',5,\'1-\');">5</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',6,\'1-\');">6</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',7,\'1-\');">7</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',20,\'1-\');">20</a> and <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',31,\'1-\');">31</a>, and large portions of <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',1,\'1-\');">Isa 1</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',2,\'1-\');">2</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',4,\'1-\');">4</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',8,\'1-\');">8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',9,\'1-\');">9</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',10,\'1-\');">10</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',14,\'1-\');">14</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',17,\'1-\');">17</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',22,\'1-\');">22</a> and <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',23,\'1-\');">23</A>, may be assigned to Isaiah, the son of Amoz;<P>(b) all of <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',13,\'1-\');">Isa 13</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',40,\'1-\');">40</a> and <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',47,\'1-\');">47</a>, and large portions of <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',14,\'1-\');">Isa 14</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',21,\'1-\');">21</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',41,\'1-\');">41</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',43,\'1-\');">43</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',44,\'1-\');">44</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',45,\'1-\');">45</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',46,\'1-\');">46</a> and <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',48,\'1-\');">48</A>, may be assigned to the time of Cyrus;<P>(c) all of <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',15,\'1-\');">Isa 15</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',36,\'1-\');">36</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',37,\'1-\');">37</a> and <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',39,\'1-\');">39</a>, and portions of <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',16,\'1-\');">Isa 16</a> and <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',38,\'1-\');">38</A>, may be assigned to the period between Nebuchadnezzar and Alexander the Great, but cannot be dated precisely;<P>(d) the passage <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',23,\'1-14\');">23:1-14</A> may be assigned to the time of Alexander the Great;<P>(e) all of <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',11,\'1-\');">Isa 11</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',12,\'1-\');">12</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',19,\'1-\');">19</a>; <span class="noTag">24-27</span>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',29,\'1-\');">29</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',30,\'1-\');">30</a>; <span class="noTag">32-35</span>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',42,\'1-\');">42</a>; <span class="noTag">49-66</span>; and portions of <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',1,\'1-\');">Isa 1</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',2,\'1-\');">2</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',4,\'1-\');">4</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',8,\'1-\');">8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',9,\'1-\');">9</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',10,\'1-\');">10</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',16,\'1-\');">16</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',17,\'1-\');">17</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',18,\'1-\');">18</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',23,\'1-\');">23</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',41,\'1-\');">41</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',44,\'1-\');">44</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',45,\'1-\');">45</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',48,\'1-\');">48</a> may be assigned to the 2nd century BC (167-140 BC).<P>Professor C. F. Kent, also (Sermons, Epistles, and Apocalypses of Israel\'s Prophets, 1910, 27ff), makes the following critical observations on <span class="noTag">Isa 40-66</span>. He says: "The prophecies of Haggai and Zechariah ...afford by far the best approach for the study of the difficult problems presented by <span class="noTag">Isa 40-66</span>. <span class="noTag">Isaiah 56-66</span> are generally recognized as post-exilic. ...In <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',56,\'1-\');">Isa 56</a> and the following chapters there are repeated references to the temple and its service, indicating that it had already been restored. Moreover, these references are not confined to the latter part of the book. ...The fact, on the one hand, that there are few, if any, allusions to contemporary events in these chapters, and on the other hand, that little or nothing is known of the condition and hopes of the Jews during this period (the closing years of the Babylonian exile) makes the dating of these prophecies possible, although far from certain. ...Also, the assumption that the author of these chapters lived in the Babylonian exile is not supported by a close examination of the prophecies themselves. Possibly their author was one of the few who, like Zerubbabel, had been born in Babylon and later returned to Palestine. He was also dealing with such broad and universal problems that he gives few indications of his date and place of abode; but all the evidence that is found points to Jerusalem as the place where he lived and wrote. ...The prophet\'s interest and point of view center throughout in Jerusalem, and he shows himself far more familiar with conditions in Palestine than in distant Babylon. Most of his illustrations are drawn from the agricultural life of Palestine. His vocabulary is also that of a man dwelling in Palestine, and in this respect is in marked contrast with the synonyms employed by Ezekiel, the prophet of the Babylonian exile."<P>That is to say, two of the most recent investigators of the Book of Isaiah reach conclusions quite at variance with the opinions advocated in 1890, when Delitzsch so reluctantly allowed that <span class="noTag">Isa 40-66</span> may have sprung from the period of Babylonian exile. Now, it is found that these last 27 chapters were written after the exile, most probably in Palestine, rather than in Babylonia as originally claimed, and are no longer considered addressed primarily to the suffering exiles in captivity as was formerly urged.<P>(4) The Present State of the Question.<P>The present state of the Isaiah question is, to say the least, confusing. Those who deny the integrity of the book may be divided into two groups, which we may call moderates and radicals. Among the moderates may be included Drs. Driver, G.A. Smith, Skinner, Kirkpatrick, Koenig, A.B. Davidson, Barnes and Whitehouse. These all practically agree that the following chapters and verses are not Isaiah\'s: <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',11,\'10-16\');">11:10-16</A>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',12,\'1-\');">12</A>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',13,\'1-\');">13:1</a>-<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',14,\'1-23\');">14:23</A>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',15,\'1-\');">15:1</A>-<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',16,\'1-12\');">16:12</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',21,\'1-10\');">21:1-10</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',24,\'1-\');">24-27</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',34,\'1-\');">34</A>-<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',35,\'1-\');">35</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',36,\'1-\');">36-39</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',40,\'1-\');">40-66</a>. That is to say, some 44 chapters out of the whole number, 66, were not written by Isaiah; or, approximately 800 out of 1,292 verses are not genuine. Among the radicals are Drs. Cheyne, Duhm, Hackmann, Guthe, Marti, Kennett and Gray. These all reject approximately 1,030 verses out of the total 1,292, retaining the following only as the genuine product of Isaiah and his age: <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',1,\'2-26\');">1:2-26</A>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',29,\'1-\');">29-31</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',2,\'6-19\');">2:6-19</A>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',3,1,5,8,9,\'12-17\');">3:1, 5, 8, 9, 12-17</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',4,1);">4:1</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',5,\'1-14\',\'17-29\');">5:1-14,17-29</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',6,\'1-\');">6</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',7,\'1-8\',22);">7:1-8, 22</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',9,\'8-\');">9:8</a>-<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',10,\'1-9\');">10:9</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',10,13,14,\'27-32\');">10:13,14, 27-32</A>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',17,\'1-14\');">17:1-14</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',18,\'1-\');">18</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',20,\'1-\');">20</A>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',22,\'1-22\');">22:1-22</A>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',28,\'1-4\',\'7-22\');">28:1-4, 7-22</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',29,\'1-6\',9,10,13,14,15);">29:1-6,9,10,13-15</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',30,\'1-17\');">30:1-17</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',31,\'1-4\');">31:1-4</A>. That is, only about 262 verses out of the total 1,292 are allowed to be genuine. This is, we believe, a fair statement of the Isaiah-question as it exists in the hands of divisive critics today.<P>On the other hand there have been those who have defended and who still defend the essential unity of Isaiah\'s entire book, e.g. Strachey (1874), Nagelsbach (1877), Bredenkamp (1887), Douglas (1895), W.H. Cobb (1883-1908), W.H. Green (1892), Vos (1898-99), Thirtle (1907), Margoliouth (1910) and O.T. Allis (1912).<P>(5) Reasons for Dissecting the Book.<P>The fundamental axiom of criticism is the dictum that a prophet always spoke out of a definite historical situation to the present needs of the people among whom he lived, and that a definite historical situation shall be pointed out for each prophecy. This fundamental postulate, which on the whole is reasonable and perfectly legitimate if not overworked, underlies all modern criticism of Old Testament prophecy. It is not possible, however, always to trace a mere snatch of sermonic discourse to a definite historical situation apart from its context. Moreover, the prophets often spoke consciously, not only to their own generation, but also to the generations to come. Isaiah in particular commanded, "Bind thou up the testimony, seal the law among my disciples" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',8,16);">8:16</A>); that is, preserve my teachings for the future. Again in <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',30,8);">30:8</a>, he says, "Now go, ...inscribe it in a book, that it may be for the time to come for ever and ever." And also in <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',42,23);">42:23</a>, "Who is there among you that will give ear to this? that will hearken and hear for the time to come?"<P>Certain false presuppositions often govern critics in their disintegration of the book. Only a few examples need be given by way of illustration:<P>(a) According to some, "the conversion of the heathen" lay quite beyond the horizon of any 8th-century prophet; consequently, <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',2,\'2-4\');">Isa 2:2-4</a> and all similar passages which foretell the conversion of those outside the chosen people are to be relegated to an age subsequent to Isaiah.<P>(b) To others, "the picture of universal peace" in <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',11,\'1-9\');">Isa 11:1-9</a> is a symptom of late date, and therefore this section and all kindred ones must be deleted.<P>(c) To others, the thought of "universal judgment" upon "the whole earth" in <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',14,26);">14:26</A> and elsewhere quite transcends Isaiah\'s range of thought.<P>(d) To others still, the apocalyptic character of <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',24,\'1-\');">Isa 24-27</a> represents a phase of Hebrew thought which prevailed in Israel only after Ezekiel.<P>(e) Even to those who are considered moderates "the poetic character" of a passage like <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',12,\'1-\');">Isa 12</a>, and the references to a "return" from captivity, as in <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',11,\'11-16\');">11:11-16</a>, and the promises and consolations such as are found in <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',33,\'1-\');">Isa 33</a> are cited as grounds for assigning these and similar passages to a much later age. Radicals deny in toto the existence of all Messianic passages among Isaiah\'s own predictions, relegating all Messianic hope to a much later age.<P>But to deny to the Isaiah of the 8th century all catholicity of grace, all universalism of salvation or judgment, every highly developed Messianic ideal, every rich note of promise and comfort, all sublime faith in the sacrosanct character of Zion, as some do, is unwarrantably to create a new Isaiah of greatly reduced proportions, a mere preacher of righteousness, a statesman of not very optimistic vein, and the exponent of a cold ethical religion without the warmth and glow of the messages which are actually ascribed to the prophet of the 8th century.<P>As a last resort, certain critics have appealed to <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',36,22,23);">2Ch 36:22-23</a> as external evidence that <span class="noTag">Isa 40-66</span> existed as a separate collection in the Chronicler\'s age. But the evidence obtained from this source is so doubtful that it is well-nigh valueless. For it is not the prediction of Isaiah concerning Cyrus to which the Chronicler points as Jeremiah\'s, but the "70 years" of Babylonian supremacy spoken of in <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',36,21);">2Ch 36:21</a>, which Jeremiah actually did predict (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',25,11);">Jer 25:11</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',29,10);">29:10</a>). On the other hand, <span class="noTag">Isa 40-66</span> were certainly ascribed to Isaiah as early as 180 BC, for Jesus Ben-Sirach, the author of Ecclesiasticus, speaks of Isaiah as the prophet who "saw by an excellent spirit that which should come to pass at the last, and comforted them that mourned in Zion" (Ecclesiasticus 48:20ff; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',40,1);">Isa 40:1</a>ff). Furthermore, there is absolutely no proof that <span class="noTag">Isa 1-39</span>, or <span class="noTag">Isa 40-66</span>, or any other section of Isaiah\'s prophecies ever existed by themselves as an independent collection; nor is there any substantial ground for supposing that the promissory and Messianic portions have been systematically interpolated by editors long subsequent to Isaiah\'s own time. The earlier prophets presumably did more than merely threaten.<P>(6) Arguments for One Isaiah.<P>It is as unreasonable to expect to be able to prove the unity of Isaiah as to suppose that it has been disproved. Internal evidence is indecisive in either case. There are arguments, however, which corroborate a belief that there was but one Isaiah. Here are some of those which might be introduced:<P>(a) The Circle of Ideas:<P>The circle of ideas, which are strikingly the same throughout the entire book: For example, take the characteristic name for God, which is almost peculiar to Isaiah, "the Holy One of Israel." This title for Yahweh occurs in the Book of Isaiah a total of 25 times, and only 6 times elsewhere in the Old Testament, one of which is a parallel passage in Kings. This unique epithet, "the Holy One of Israel," interlocks all the various portions with one another and stamps them with the personal imprimatur of him who saw the vision of the majestic God seated upon His throne, high and lifted up, and heard the angelic choirs singing: "Holy, holy, holy, is Yahweh of hosts: the whole earth is full of his glory" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',6,3);">6:3</A>). The presence of this Divine title in all the different sections of the book is of more value in identifying Isaiah as the author of all these prophecies than though his name had been inserted at the beginning of every chapter, for the reason that his theology<67>his conception of God as the Holy One<6E>is woven into the very fiber and texture of the whole book. It occurs 12 times in <span class="noTag">Isa 1-39</span>, and 13 times in <span class="noTag">Isa 40-66</span>; and it is simply unscientific to say that the various alleged authors of the disputed portions all employed the same title through imitation (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',1,4);">1:4</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',5,19,24);">5:19, 24</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',10,20);">10:20</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',12,6);">12:6</A>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',17,7);">17:7</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',29,19);">29:19</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',30,11,12,15);">30:11, 12, 15</A>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',31,1);">31:1</A>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',37,23);">37:23</A>; also <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',41,14,16,20);">41:14, 16, 20</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',43,3,14);">43:3, 14</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',45,11);">45:11</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',47,4);">47:4</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',48,17);">48:17</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',49,7);">49:7</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',54,5);">54:5</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',55,5);">55:5</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',60,9,14);">60:9,14</a>; elsewhere, only in <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',19,22);">2Ki 19:22</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',71,22);">Ps 71:22</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',78,41);">78:41</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',89,18);">89:18</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',50,29);">Jer 50:29</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',51,5);">51:5</a>).<P>Another unique idea which occurs with considerable repetition in the Book of Isaiah is the thought of a "highway" (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',11,16);">11:16</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',35,8);">35:8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',40,3);">40:3</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',43,19);">43:19</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',49,11);">49:11</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',57,14);">57:14</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',62,10);">62:10</a>). Another characteristic idea is that of a "remnant" (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',1,9);">1:9</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',10,20,21,22);">10:20, 21, 22</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',11,11,16);">11:11,16</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',14,22,30);">14:22, 30</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',15,9);">15:9</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',16,14);">16:14</a> <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',17,3);">17:3</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',21,7);">21:17</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',28,5);">28:5</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',37,31);">37:31</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',46,3);">46:3</a>; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',65,8,9);">65:8,9</A>). Another striking trait of the book is the position occupied by "Zion" in the prophet\'s thoughts (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',2,3);">2:3</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',4,5);">4:5</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',18,7);">18:7</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',24,23);">24:23</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',28,16);">28:16</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',29,8);">29:8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',30,19);">30:19</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',31,9);">31:9</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',33,5,20;">33:5,20</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',34,8);">34:8<a/>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',46,13);">46:13</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',49,14);">49:14</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',51,3,16);">51:3,16</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',52,1);">52:1</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',59,20);">59:20</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',60,14);">60:14</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',62,1,11);">62:1, 11</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',66,8);">66:8</a>). Still another is the oft-repeated expression, "pangs of a woman in travail" (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',13,8);">13:8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',21,3);">21:3</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',26,17,18);">26:17,18</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',42,14);">42:14</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',54,1);">54:1</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',66,7);">66:7</a>). These, and many others less distinctive, psychologically stamp the book with an individuality which it is difficult to account for, if it be broken up into countless fragments and distributed, as some do, over the centuries.<P>(b) The Literary Style:<P>As negative evidence, literary style is not a very safe argument; for, as Professor McCurdy says, "In the case of a writer of Isaiah\'s environments, style is not a sure criterion of authorship" (History, Prophecy and the Monuments, II, 317,note). Yet it is certainly remarkable that the clause "for the mouth of Yahweh hath spoken it" should be found 3 times in the Book of Isaiah, and nowhere else in the Old Testament (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',1,20);">1:20</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',40,5);">40:5</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',58,14);">58:14</a>). And it is noteworthy that the phrase, "streams of water," should occur twice in Isaiah and nowhere else (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',30,25);">30:25</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',44,4);">44:4</a> in the Hebrew). And very peculiar is the tendency on the prophet\'s part to emphatic reduplication (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',2,7,8);">2:7,8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',6,3);">6:3</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',8,9);">8:9</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',24,16,23);">24:16, 23</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',40,1);">40:1</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',43,11,25);">43:11,25</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',48,15);">48:15</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',51,12);">51:12</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',57,19);">57:19</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',62,10);">62:10</a>). In fact, it is not extravagant to say that Isaiah\'s style differs widely from that of every other Old Testament prophet, and is as far removed as possible from that of Ezekiel and the post-exilic prophets. <P>(c) Historical References:<P>Take, for example, first, the prophet\'s constant reference to Judah and Jerusalem, his country and its capital (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',1,\'7-9\');">Isa 1:7-9</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',3,8);">3:8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',24,19);">24:19</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',25,2);">25:2</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',40,2,9);">40:2, 9</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',62,4);">62:4</a>); likewise, to the temple and its ritual of worship and sacrifice. In <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',1,\'11-15\');">Isa 1:11-15</a>, when all was prosperous, the prophet complained that the people were profuse and formal in their ceremonies and sacrifices; in <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',43,23,24);">43:23-24</a>, on the contrary, when the country had been overrun by the Assyrian and Sennacherib had besieged the city, the prophet reminds them that they had not brought to Yahweh the sheep of their burnt offerings, nor honored Him with their sacrifices; while in <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',66,1,2,3,6,20);">66:1-3,6,20</a>, not only is the existence of the Temple and the observance of the ritual presupposed, but those are sentenced who place their trust in the material temple, and the outward ceremonials of temple-worship. As for the "exile," the prophet\'s attitude to it throughout is that of both anticipation and realization. Thus, in <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',57,1);">57:1</a>, judgment is only threatened, not yet inflicted: "The righteous is taken away from the evil to come." That is to say, the exile is described as still future. On the other hand, in <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',3,8);">3:8</a>, "Jerusalem is ruined, and Judah is fallen," which seems to describe the exile as in the past; yet, as everybody admits, these are the words of Isaiah of the 8th century. In <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',11,11,12);">11:11,12</a>, the prophet says, "The Lord will set his hand again the second time to recover the remnant of his people. ...from the four corners of the earth." To interpret such a statement literally and mechanically without regard to 8th-century conditions, or to Isaiah\'s manifest attitude to the exile, leads to confusion. No prophet realized so keenly or described so vividly the destiny of the Hebrews.<P>(d) The Predictive Element:<P>This is the strongest proof of the unity of the Book of Isaiah. Prediction is the very essence of prophecy (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',18,22);">De 18:22</a>); Isaiah was preeminently a prophet of the future. With unparalleled suddenness, he repeatedly leaps from despair to hope, from threat to promise, and from the actual to the ideal. What Professor Kent says of "Deutero-Isaiah" may with equal justice be said of Isaiah himself: "While in touch with his own age, the great unknown prophet lives in the atmosphere of the past and the future" (Sermons, Epistles, and Apocalypses of Israel\'s Prophets, 28). Isaiah spoke to his own age, but he also addressed himself to the ages to follow. His verb tenses are characteristically futures and prophetic perfects. Of his book A.B. Davidson\'s words are particularly true: "If any prophetic book be examined ...it will appear that the ethical and religious teaching is always secondary, and that the essential thing in the book or discourse is the prophet\'s outlook into the future" (HDB, article "Prophecy and Prophets," IV, 119).<P>Isaiah was exceptionally given to predicting: thus (a) before the Syro-Ephraimitic war (734 BC), he predicted that within 65 years Ephraim should be broken to pieces (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',7,8);">7:8</a>); and that before the child Maher-shalal-hash-baz should have knowledge to cry, "My father," or "My mother," the riches of Damascus and the spoil of Samaria should be carried away (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',8,4);">8:4</a>; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',7,16);">7:16</a>). These are, however, but two of numerous predictions, as shown above, among his earlier prophecies (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',1,27,28);">1:27,28</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',2,2,3,4);">2:2-4</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',6,13);">6:13</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',10,\'20-23\');">10:20-23</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',11,\'6-16\');">11:6-16</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',17,14);">17:14</a>).<P>(i) Shortly before the downfall of Samaria in 722 BC, Isaiah predicted that Tyre should be forgotten 70 years, and that after the end of 70 years her merchandise should be holiness to Yahweh (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',23,15,18);">23:15,18</a>).<P>(ii) In like manner prior to the siege of Ashdod in 711 BC, he proclaimed that within 3 years Moab should be brought into contempt (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',16,14);">Isa 16:14</a>), and that within a year all the glory of Kedar should fail (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',21,16);">Isa 21:16</a>).<P>(iii) And not long prior to the siege of Jerusalem by Sennacherib in 701 BC, he predicted that in an instant, suddenly, a multitude of Jerusalem\'s foes should be as dust (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',29,5);">Isa 29:5</a>); that yet a very little while and Lebanon should be turned into a fruitful field (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',29,17);">Isa 29:17</a>); and that Assyria should be dismayed and fall by the sword, but not of men (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',30,17,31);">Isa 30:17, 31</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',31,8);">31:8</a>). And more, that for days beyond a year, the careless women of Jerusalem should be troubled (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',32,10,\'16-20\');">Isa 32:10, 16-20</a>); and that the righteous in Zion should see Jerusalem a quiet habitation, and return and come with singing (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',33,17);">Isa 33:17</a>ff; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',35,4,10);">35:4,10</A>); but that Sennacherib, on the contrary, should hear tidings and return without shooting an arrow into the city (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',37,7,\'26-29\',\'33-35\');">Isa 37:7, 26-29, 33-35</a>).<P>In like manner, also, after the siege of Jerusalem by Sennacherib in 701 BC was over, the prophet seems to have continued to predict; and, in order to demonstrate to the suffering and unbelieving remnant about him the deity of Yahweh and the folly of idolatry, pointed to the predictions which he had already made in the earlier years of his ministry, and to the fact that they had been fulfilled. Thus, he says, "Who hath declared it from the beginning, that we may know? and beforetime, that we may say, He is right?" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',41,\'21-23\',26);">Isa 41:21-23, 26</a>); "Behold, the former things are come to pass, and new things do I declare; before they spring forth I tell you of them" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',42,9,23);">Isa 42:9, 23</a>); "Who among them can declare this, and show us former things (i.e. things to come in the immediate future)? ...I have declared, and I have saved, and I have showed" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',43,9,12);">Isa 43:9,12</a>); "Who, as I, shall call, and shall declare it ....? And the things that are coming, and that shall come to pass, let them (the idols) declare. ...Have I not declared unto thee of old, and showed it? And ye are my witnesses. ...That saith of Cyrus, He is my shepherd, and shall perform all my pleasure, even saying of Jerusalem, She shall be built; and of the temple, Thy foundation shall be laid" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',44,7,8,27,28);">Isa 44:7-8, 27-28</a>); "It is I, Yahweh, who call thee by thy name, even the God of Israel. ...I have called thee by thy name: I have surnamed thee, though thou hast not known me. ...Ask me of the things that are to come. ...I have raised him (Cyrus) up in righteousness, and ...he shall build my city, and he shall let my exiles go free" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',45,3,4,11,13);">45:3,4,11,13</a>); "Declaring the end from the beginning, and from ancient times things that are not yet done; ...calling a ravenous bird (Cyrus) from the east, the man of my counsel from a far country; yea, I have spoken, I will also bring it to pass" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',46,10,11);">Isa 46:10-11</a>); "I have declared the former things from of old, ...and I showed them: suddenly I did them, and they came to pass. ...I have declared it ...from of old; before it came to pass I showed it thee; lest thou shouldest say, Mine idol hath done them" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',48,3,5);">Isa 48:3, 5</a>); "I have showed thee new things from<P>this time, even hidden things. ...Yea, from of old thine ear was not opened. ...Who among them hath declared these things? ...I, even I, have spoken; yea, I have called him; ...from the beginning I have not spoken in secret" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',48,\'6-8\',\'14-16\');">Isa 48:6-8, 14-16</a>). Such predictions are explicit and emphatic.<P>(e) Cyrus a Subject of Prediction:<P>From all the above-mentioned explicit and oft-repeated predictions one thing is obvious, namely, that great emphasis is laid by the prophet on prediction throughout the entire Book of Isaiah. And it must be further allowed that "Cyrus" is represented by the author as predicted, from any point of view. The only question is, Does the prophet emphasize the fact that he himself is predicting the coming of Cyrus? or that former predictions concerning Cyrus are now, as the prophet writes, coming to pass before his readers\' eyes? Canon Cheyne\'s remark upon this point is instructive. He says: "The editor, who doubtless held the later Jewish theory of prophecy, may have inferred from a number of passages, especially <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',41,26);">Isa 41:26</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',48,3,6,14);">48:3, 6, 14</a>, that the first appearance of Cyrus had been predicted by an ancient prophet, and observing certain Isaianic elements in the phraseology of these chapters, may have identified the prophet with Isaiah" (Introduction to the Book of Isaiah, 238).<P>Dr. G.A. Smith likewise allows that Cyrus is the fulfillment of former predictions.<P>He says: "Nor is it possible to argue, as some have tried to do, that the prophet is predicting these things as if they had already happened. For as part of argument for the unique divinity of the God of Israel, Cyrus, \'alive and irresistible,\' and already accredited with success, is pointed out as the unmistakable proof that former prophecies of a deliverance for Israel are already coming to pass. Cyrus, in short, is not presented as a prediction, but as a proof that a prediction is being fulfilled" (HDB, article "Isaiah," 493). And further he says: "The chief claim, therefore, which <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',40,\'1-\');">Isa 40</a>ff make for the God of Israel is His power to direct the history of the world in conformity to a long-predicted and faithfully followed purpose. This claim starts from the proof that Yahweh has long before predicted events now happening or about to happen, with Cyrus as their center. But this is much more than a proof of isolated predictions, though these imply omniscience. It is a declaration of the unity of history sweeping to the high ends which have been already revealed to Israel<65>an exposition, in short, of the Omnipotence, Consistence, and Faithfulness of the Providence of the One True God" (ibid., 496).<P>It is obvious, therefore, in any case, whether these chapters are early or late, that Cyrus is the subject of prediction. It really makes little difference at which end of history one takes his stand, whether in the 8th century BC with Isaiah, or in the 6th century BC with "Deutero-Isaiah." Cyrus, to the author of these chapters, is the subject of prediction. In other words, whether indeed the author is really predicting Cyrus in advance of all apparent fulfillment, or Cyrus is the fulfillment of some ancient prediction by another, does not alter the fact that Cyrus was the subject of prediction on the part of somebody. Accordingly, as was stated at the outset, the whole question is, which does the prophet emphasize, (a) the fact that he himself is predicting? or, (b) that former predictions by someone else are now before his eyes coming to pass? The truth is, the prophet seems to live in the atmosphere of the past and the future as well as in the present, all of which are equally vivid to his prophetic mind. This is a peculiar characteristic of Isaiah. It is seen in the account he gives of his inaugural vision (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',6,\'1-\');">Isa 6</a>), of which Delitzsch remarks that it is "like a prediction in the process of being fulfilled." The same is true of <span class="noTag">Isa 24-27</span>. There the prophet repeatedly projects himself into the future, and speaks from the standpoint of the fulfillment of his predictions. It is especially true of <span class="noTag">Isa 40-48</span>. At one time the prophet emphasizes the fact that he is predicting, and a little later he describes his predictions as coming to pass. When, accordingly, a decision is made as to when the author predicted Cyrus, it is more natural to suppose that he was doing so long before Cyrus\' actual appearance. This, in fact, is in keeping with the test of true prophecy contained in <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',18,22);">De 18:22</a>: "When a prophet speaketh in the name of Yahweh, if the thing follow not, nor come to pass, that is the thing which Yahweh hath not spoken; the prophet hath spoken it presumptuously, thou shalt not be afraid of him." Besides, there is a similar explicit prediction in the Old Testament, namely, that of King Josiah, who was foretold by name two centuries before he came (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',13,2);">1Ki 13:2</a>; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',23,15,16);">2Ki 23:15-16</a>).<P>Dr. W. H. Cobb in the Journal of Biblical Literature and Exegesis,1901,79, pleads for a "shrinkage of Cyrus," because Cyrus figures only in <span class="noTag">Isa 40-48</span>, and is then dismissed. Dr. Thirtle, on the other hand, argues that the name "Cyrus" is a mere appellative, being originally not Koresh (Cyrus), but choresh ("workman," "artificer," "imagebreaker"), and that <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',44,27,28);">44:27,28</a> is a gloss (compare Old Testament Problems, 244-64). But in opposition to these views the present writer prefers to write Cyrus large, and to allow frankly that he is the subject of extraordinary prediction. For the very point of the author\'s argument is, that he is predicting events which Yahweh alone is capable of foretelling or bringing to pass; in other words, that prescience is the proof of Yahweh\'s Deity. Isaiah lived in an age when Yahweh\'s secrets were first revealed privately unto His servants the prophets (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Amo\',3,7);">Am 3:7</a>). Political conditions were unsettled and kaleidoscopic, and there was every incentive to predict. That Isaiah actually uttered wonderful predictions. is attested, furthermore, both by Jesus Ben-Sirach in Ecclesiasticus 48:20-25 (written circa 180 BC), and by Josephus in his Ant, XI, i,1,2 (dating from circa 100 AD); and these are ancient traditions worthy of credence.<P>Recently, Mr. Oswald T. Allis, after a thorough and exhaustive critical investigation of "the numerico-climactic structure" of the poem in <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',44,\'24-28\');">Isa 44:24-28</a>, concludes that "the most striking and significant features of the poem favor the view that while the utterance was significant in and of itself, it was chiefly significant in view of the exceptional circumstance under which it was spoken, i.e. in view of its early date. The chronological arrangement of the poem assigns the Restoration and Cyrus to the future. The perspective of the poem, together with the abrupt change of person in the 2nd strophe, argues that the future is a remote future. And finally the carefully constructed double climax attaches a significance to the definiteness of the utterance which is most easily accounted for if this future was so remote that a definite disclosure concerning it would be of extraordinary importance." And he further alleges that "it is impossible, if justice is done to the plain declarations of Scripture, to limit the prophetic horizon of the prophet Isaiah to the preexilic period and that ...when the form of the poem is recognized, there is every reason to assign it to a pre-exilic prophet, to Isaiah, since the form of the poem is admirably calculated to emphasize the fact that Cyrus and the Restoration belong to a distant future, and to make it clear that it is just because of this fact that the definitehess of the prophecy, the mention of Cyrus by name, is so remarkable and of such unique significance" (Biblical and Theological Studies, by the members of the Faculty of Princeton Theological Seminary, Centennial Volume, 1912, 628-29).<P>After all, why should men object to prediction on so large a scale? Unless there is definiteness about any given prediction, and unless it transcends ordinary prognostication, there is no especial value in it. Should it be objected, however, that prediction of so minute a character is "abhorrent to reason," the answer is already at hand; it may be abhorrent to reason, but it is a handmaid to faith. Faith has to do with the future, even as prediction has to do with the future; and the Old Testament is preeminently a book which encourages faith. There is really no valid objection to the prediction of Cyrus. For the one outstanding differentiating characteristic of Israel\'s religion is predictive prophecy. The Hebrews certainly predicted the coming of a Messiah. Indeed, the Hebrews were the only people of antiquity whose "Golden Age" lay in the future rather than in the past. Accordingly, to predict the coming of a Cyrus as the human agent of Israel\'s salvation is but the reverse side of the same prophet\'s picture of the Divine agent, namely, the obedient, Suffering Servant of Yahweh, who would redeem Israel from its sin. Deny to Isaiah the son of Amoz the prediction concerning Cyrus, and it is but logical to go farther and to deny to him the Messianic hope which is usually associated with his name. Deny to Isaiah the son of Amoz the predictions concerning a return from captivity, and the prophecies of his book are robbed of their essential character and unique perspective. Emasculate those portions of the Book of Isaiah which unveil the future, and they are reduced to a mere vaticinium ex eventu, and their religious value as Divine oracles is largely lost.<P>LITERATURE.<P>So much has been written on Isaiah\'s prophecies that only a selected list can be given here:<P>I. Commentaries on Isaiah:<P>Owen C. Whitehouse, The New Century Bible, 2 volumes, 1905; J. Skinner, The Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges, 2 volumes, 1896-98; W.E. Barnes, The Churchman\'s Bible, 2 volumes, 1901-3; G.A. Smith, The Expositor\'s Bible, 2 volumes, 1888-90; Franz Delitzsch, Clark\'s Foreign Theological Library, 2 volumes, 1892; (C. von Orelli, Clark\'s Foreign Theological Library, 1895; T.K. Cheyne, The Prophecies of Isaiah, 2 volumes, 1892; G.W. Wade, Westminster Commentaries, 1911; G.H. Box, The Book of Isaiah, 1909; G.B. Gray, International Critical Commentary, I, chapters i-xxvii, 1912; II, chapters xxviii-lxvi, by G.B. Gray and A.S. Peake; J.E. McFadyen, "Book of the Prophecies of Isaiah" (The Bible for Home and School), 1910; G. Campbell Morgan, The Analyzed Bible, 2 volumes, 1910; Alexander Maclaren, Expositions of Holy Scripture, 2 volumes, 1906; H.G. Mitchell, Isaiah: A Study of chapters 1-12, 1897; Nagelsbach in Lange\'s Bibelwerk, English edition, 1878; J.A. Alexander, 1865; H. Ewald, English edition, 1876-81; John Calvin, English edition, 1850; R. Lowth, 1778; Vitringa, 1732; W. Gesenius, 1820-21; F. Hitzig, 1833; C.J. Bredenkamp, 1887; A. Dillmann,1890,as revised by Kittel, 1898; B. Duhm, in Nowack\'s Handkommentar zum Altes Testament, 1892; K. Marti, 1900; A. Condamin (Roman Catholic), 1905.<P>II. Introduction and Criticism:<P>S.R. Driver, Isaiah, His Life and Times, in "The Men of the Bible Series," 1888; T.K. Cheyne, Introduction to the Book of Isaiah, 1895; W.R. Smith, The Prophets of Israel, 2nd edition, 1896; A.F. Kirkpatrick, The Doctrine of the Prophets, 1892; J.W. Thirtle, Old Testament Problems, 1907; W.E. Barnes, An Examination of <span class="noTag">Isaiah 24-27</span>, 1891; G. Douglas, Isaiah One and His Book One, 1895; J. Kennedy, A Popular Argument for the Unity of Isaiah, 1891; E. Koenig, The Exiles\' Book of Consolation, 1899; G.C. Workman, The Servant of Yahweh, 1907; M.G. Glazebrook, Studies in the Book of Isaiah, 1910; R.H. Kennett, The Composition of the Book of Isaiah in the Light of History and Archaeology, 1910; R.R. Ottley, Isaiah according to the Septuagint, 1904; Hackmann, Die Zukunftserwartung des Jesaia, 1893; J. Meinhold, Die Jesajaerzahlungen, Jesaja 36-39, 1898; O.T. Allis, "The Transcendence of Yahweh, God of Israel, <span class="noTag">Isa 44:24-28</span>," in Biblical and Theological Studies, Princeton\'s Centennial Commemoration Volume, 1912, 579634; J. Hastings, The Great Texts of the Bible, 1910; C.S. Robinson, The Gospel in Isaiah, 1895; E. Sievers, Metrische Studien, 1901; G.L. Robinson, The Book of Isaiah, 1910; H. Guthe, Das Zukunfisbild des Jesaia, 1885; Feldmann, Der Knecht Gottes, 1907; W. Urwick, The Servant of Yahweh, 1877; K. Cramer, The Historical Background of <span class="noTag">Isa 56-66</span>, 1905; A.B. Davidson, Old Testament Prophecy, 1903.<P>III. Articles in Journals and Dictionaries:<P>W.H Cobb in Journal of Biblical Literature and Exegesis,1891,II; 1895, I and II; 1898, I; 1901, I; 1908, I; F. Brown, JBL,1890,I; W. H. Cobb, in the BS, 1882; G. A. Smith, article "Isaiah" in HDB, 1899; T. K. Cheyne, in the EB,1901,and in the Encyclopedia Brit, 11th edition, 1910; Jas. Robertson, in the Illustrated Bible Dict., 1908; E. Koenig, in the Standard Bible Dict., 1909; A. Klostermann and J. A. Kelso, in The New Sch-Herz, 1910; A. Klostermann in the See Hauck-Herzog, Realencyklopadie fur protestantische Theologie und Kirche, 1900; G. Vos, Presbyterian and Reformed Review, 1898; D.S. Margoliouth, in The Temple Dictionary, 1910; C.A. Briggs, article "Analysis of <span class="noTag">Isa 40-62</span>" in Harper Memorial Volume. ``152';
isbe[4665]='Isaiah, Ascension of``<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=APOCALYPTIC+LITERATURE">APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE</a>`1';
isbe[4666]='Iscah`iz\'-ka, is\'-ka (yickah): Daughter of Haran and sister of Milcah the wife of Nahor (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',11,29);">Ge 11:29</a>). Tradition identifies her with Sarai, Abram\'s wife; but without sufficient reason.``1';
isbe[4667]='Iscariot`is-kar\'-i-ot.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=JUDAS+ISCARIOT">JUDAS ISCARIOT</a>`1';
isbe[4668]='Isdael`is\'-da-el (Isdael): In 1Esdras 5:33; called "Giddel" in <a onClick="return mV(\'Ezr\',2,56);">Ezr 2:56</a>.``1';
isbe[4669]='Ish`(\'ish): In the following Hebrew proper names, a prefix meaning "man of," or, collectively, "men of": Ish-bosheth, Ishhod, Ish-tob (but the Revised Version (British and American) correctly "the men of Tob").`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ESHBAAL">ESHBAAL</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ESHBAN">ESHBAN</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ISCARIOT">ISCARIOT</a>`1';
isbe[4670]='Ish-Bosheth`ish-bo\'-sheth (ish-bosheth, "man of shame"\' Iesbosthe): Called \'eshba\'al, "man of Baal" (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',8,33);">1Ch 8:33</a>), and yishwi, "man of Yahweh" (?), perhaps for \'isheyo (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',14,49);">1Sa 14:49</a>). Compare <a href="study/isbe/search.html?string=ESHBAAL">ESHBAAL</A> and <a href="study/isbe/search.html?string=ISHVI">ISHVI</a> (the King James Version "Ishui"). We probably have the right meaning of the name in Eshbaal and Ishvi, the words Baal and Yahweh being frequently interchanged. The change to Ish-bosheth, "man of shame," in 2 Samuel, where the story of his shameful murder is related, may be better explained as reference to this (see <a href="study/isbe/search.html?string=MEPHIBOSHETH">MEPHIBOSHETH</a>, whose name was also changed from Merib-baal for similar reasons), than to find here a suggestion of Baal-worship, but see HPN,121,where the change is explained as a correction of the scribes, in consequence of prophetic protests.<P>One of the sons of Saul (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',8,33);">1Ch 8:33</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',9,39);">9:39</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',14,49);">1Sa 14:49</a>) who, when his father and brothers were slain in the battle of Gilboa (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',31,1);">1Sa 31:1</a>), was proclaimed king over Israel by Abner, the captain of Saul\'s host, at Mahanaim (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',2,8);">2Sa 2:8</a>). Ishbosheth was 40 years old at this time and reigned over Israel 2 years (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',2,10);">2Sa 2:10</a>). Judah, however, proclaimed David its king. The consequence was war (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',2,12);">2Sa 2:12</a>). The house of David prevailed against the house of Saul (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',3,1);">2Sa 3:1</a>), but the war did not come to a close until Abner, angry on account of the rebuke he suffered from Ish-Bosheth for his unlawful intimacy with Rizpah, Saul\'s concubine, joined David (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',3,6);">2Sa 3:6</a>). David\'s condition to return to him Michal, his wife before peace could be made, was fulfilled by Ish-Bosheth (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',3,14);">2Sa 3:14</a>f), but it was not until after Abner\'s death that Ish-Bosheth seems to have given up hopes of retaining his power (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',4,1);">2Sa 4:1</a>). The shameful murder of Ish-Bosheth by his own captains is recorded in <a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',4,5);">2Sa 4:5</a>ff. David punished the murderers who had expected reward and buried Ish-Bosheth in the grave of Abner at Hebron (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',4,12);">2Sa 4:12</a>f).``16';
isbe[4671]='Ish-Sechel`ish\'-se-kel (\'ish sekhel, "man of discretion"): Ezra, at one time in need of ministers for the house of God, sent "unto Iddo the chief at the place Casiphia." "And according to the good hand of our God upon us they brought us a man of discretion (m "Ish-sechel"), of the sons of Mahli, the son of Levi, the son of Israel" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ezr\',8,18);">Ezr 8:18</a>). This is the only reference to Ish-sechel.``1';
isbe[4672]='Ish-Tob`ish\'-tob (\'ish Tobh, the American Standard Revised Version "the men of Tob"): A place in Palestine, probably a small kingdom, large enough, however, to supply at least 12,000 men of valor to the children of Ammorn in their struggle against Joab, David\'s general (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',10,6,8);">2Sa 10:6, 8</a>).`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ISH">ISH</a>`1';
isbe[4673]='Ishbaal`ish\'-ba-al.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ISH+BOSHETH">ISH-BOSHETH</a>`1';
isbe[4674]='Ishbah`ish\'-ba (yishbach): A member of the tribe of Judah, father of Eshtemoa (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',4,17);">1Ch 4:17</a>).``1';
isbe[4675]='Ishbak`ish\'-bak (yishbaq): A name in the list of sons of Abraham by Keturah (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',25,2);">Ge 25:2</a> parallel <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',1,32);">1Ch 1:32</a>). These names probably represent tribes; the tribe of Ishbak has not been certainly identified.``1';
isbe[4676]='Ishbi-Benob`ish-bi-be\'-nob (yishbi bhenobh): One of the four "born to the giant in Gath" who were slain by David and his men (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',21,\'15-22\');">2Sa 21:15-22</a>). Ishbi-benob was slain by Abishai, and David\'s life saved by the act (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',21,16,17);">21:16,17</a>).``1';
isbe[4677]='Ishhod`ish\'-hod (\'ishehodh, "man of majesty"): A man of the tribe of Manasseh (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',7,18);">1Ch 7:18</a>, the King James Version "Ishod").``1';
isbe[4678]='Ishi (1)`ish\'-i (yish\'i, "salutary"):<P>(1) A Jerahmeelite (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',2,31);">1Ch 2:31</a>); the genealogy may denote his membership by blood, or only by adoption, in the tribe of Judah.<P>(2) A Judahite (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',4,20);">1Ch 4:20</a>).<P>(3) A Simeonite, whose sons led 500 of their tribe against the Amalekites in Mt. Seir (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',4,42);">1Ch 4:42</a>).<P>(4) One of the chiefs of Manasseh east of the Jordan (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',5,24);">1Ch 5:24</a>).``1';
isbe[4679]='Ishi (2)`ish\'-i, i\'-shi (\'ishi, "my husband"; Septuagint ho aner mou): The name symbolic of Yahweh\'s relation to Israel which Hosea (<a onClick="return mV(\'Hsa\',2,16);">2:16</A>) declares shall be used when Baali, "my lord," has become hateful on account of its associations with the worship of the Baals.``1';
isbe[4680]='Ishiah`i-shi\'-ya.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ISSHIAH">ISSHIAH</a>`1';
isbe[4681]='Ishijah`i-shi\'-ja.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ISSHIJAH">ISSHIJAH</a>`1';
isbe[4682]='Ishma`ish\'-ma (yishma\', from the root yasham, "to lie waste," therefore meaning "desolate"): A brother of Jezreel and Idbash, "the sons of the father of Etam" (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',4,3);">1Ch 4:3</a>). They were brothers of Hazzelelponi.``1';
isbe[4683]='Ishmael (1)`ish\'-ma-el (yishma\'e\'l, "God heareth," or "God may," "shall hear"; Ismael):<P>(1) The son of Abraham by Hagar, the Egyptian slave of his wife Sarah. The circumstances connected with his birth reveal what seems to us to be a very strange practice. It was customary among ancient peoples to correct the natural defect of barrenness by substituting a slave woman. In our narrative, this is shown to be authorized and brought about by the legitimate wife with the understanding that the offspring of such a union should be regarded as her own: "It may be that I shall obtain children by her," literally, "that I shall be builded by her" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',16,2);">Ge 16:2</a>).<P>1. Birth:<P>The hopes of Sarah were realized, for Hagar gave birth to a son, and yet the outcome was not fully pleasing to Abraham\'s wife; there was one serious drawback. As soon as Hagar "saw that she had conceived," her behavior toward her mistress underwent a radical change; she was "despised in her eyes." But for the intervention of the angel of Yahweh, the boy might have been born in Egypt. For, being dealt with hardly (or humbled) by Sarah, the handmaid fled toward that country. On her way she was told by the angel to return to her mistress and submit herself "under her hands." She obeyed, and the child who was to be as "a wild ass among men" was born when his father was 86 years old (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',16,\'7-16\');">Ge 16:7-16</a>).<P>2. Circumcision:<P>At the age of 13 years the boy was circumcised (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',17,25);">Ge 17:25</a>) in accordance with the Divine command received by Abraham: "Every male among you shall be circumcised" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',17,10);">Ge 17:10</a>). Thus young Ishmael was made a party to the covenant into which God had entered with the lad\'s father. The fact that both Abraham and his son were circumcised the same day (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',17,26);">Ge 17:26</a>) undoubtedly adds to the importance of Ishmael\'s partaking of the holy rite. He was certainly made to understand how much his father loved him and how deeply he was concerned about his spiritual welfare. We may even assume that there was a time when Abraham looked upon Ishmael as the promised seed. His error was made clear to him when God promised him the birth of a son by Sarah. At first this seemed to be incredible, Abraham being 100 years of age and Sarah 90. And yet, how could he disbelieve the word of God? His cherished, though mistaken, belief about Ishmael, his doubts regarding the possibility of Sarah\'s motherhood, and the first faint glimmer of the real meaning of God\'s promise, all these thoughts found their expression in the fervid wish: "O that Ishmael might live before thee!" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',17,18);">Ge 17:18</a>). Gradually the truth dawned upon the patriarch that God s thoughts are not the thoughts of men, neither their ways His ways. But we have no reason to believe that this entire changing of the mental attitude of Abraham toward Ishmael reacted unfavorably on his future treatment of this son "born of the flesh" (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',21,11);">Ge 21:11</a>). If there were troubles in store for the boy likened by the angel of Yahweh to a wild ass, it was, in the main, the youngster\'s own fault.<P>3. Banishment:<P>When Isaac was weaned, Ishmael was about 16 years of age. The weaning was made an occasion for great celebration. But it seems the pleasure of the day was marred by the objectionable behavior of Ishmael. "And Sarah saw the son of Hagar the Egyptian ...mocking" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',21,9);">Ge 21:9</a>). Her jealous motherly love had quickened her sense of observation and her faculty of reading the character of children. We do not know exactly what the word used in the Hebrew for "mocking" really means. The Septuagint and the Vulgate (Jerome\'s Latin Bible, 390-405 A.D.) render the passage: "When Sarah saw the son of Hagar ...playing with Isaac," and Paul followed a later tradition when he says: "He that was born after the flesh persecuted him that was born after the Spirit" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gal\',4,29);">Ga 4:29</a>). Lightfoot (in his notes to the Epistle to the Galatians) says: "At all events the word seems to mean mocking, jeering." At any rate, the fact remains that Sarah objected to the bringing up of the son of promise together with the "mocker," and so both mother and son were banished from the tents of Abraham.<P>Now there came a most critical time in the life of young Ishmael. Only some bread and a bottle of water were "put on the shoulder" of Hagar by Abraham when he expelled her with her son. Aimlessly, as it seems, the two walked about in the wilderness of Beersheba. The water was soon spent, and with it went all hope and energy. The boy, being faint with thirst and tired out by his constant walking in the fierce heat of the sun, seemed to be dying. So his mother put him rapidly down in the shade of some plant. (We do not share the opinion of some writers that the narrative of <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',21,8);">Ge 21:8</a>ff represented Ishmael as a little boy whom his mother had carried about and finally flung in the shade of some shrub. Even if this passage is taken from a different source, it is certainly not in conflict with the rest as to the age of Ishmael.) After this last act of motherly love<76>what else could she do to help the boy?<3F>she retired to a place at some distance and resignedly expected the death of her son and perhaps her own.<P>For the 2nd time in her life, she had a marvelous experience. "God heard the voice of the lad" and comforted the unhappy mother most wonderfully. Through His angel He renewed His former promise regarding her son, and then He showed her a well of water. The lad\'s life was saved and, growing up, he became in time an archer. He lived in the wilderness of Paran and was married by his mother to an Egyptian wife (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',21,21);">Ge 21:21</a>).<P>4. His Children:<P>When Abraham died, his exiled son returned to assist his brother to bury their father (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',25,9);">Ge 25:9</a>). In the same chapter we find the names of Ishmael\'s 12 sons (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',25,12);">25:12</A>ff) and a brief report of his death at the age of 137 years (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',25,17);">25:17</A>). According to <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',28,9);">Ge 28:9</a> he also had a daughter, Mahalath, whom Esau took for his wife; in <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',36,3);">Ge 36:3</a> her name is given as Basemath.<P>5. Descendants:<P>The character of Ishmael and his descendants (Arabian nomads or Bedouins) is very accurately and vividly depicted by the angel of Yahweh: "He shall be as a wild ass among men; his hand shall be against every man, and every man\'s hand against him" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',16,12);">Ge 16:12</a>). These nomads are, indeed, roaming the wilds of the desert, jealous of their independence, quarrelsome and adventurous. We may well think of their progenitor as of a proud, undaunted and rugged son of the desert, the very counterpart of the poor boy lying half dead from fatigue and exposure under the shrub in the wilderness of Beersheba.<P>6. In the New Testament:<P>The person and the history of Ishmael, the son of Abraham, "born after the flesh," is of special interest to the student of the New Testament because Paul uses him, in the Epistle to the Galatians, as a type of those Jews who cling to the paternal religion in such a manner as to be unable to discern the transient character of the Old Testament institutions, and especially those of the Mosaic law. By doing so they could not be made to see the true meaning of the law, and instead of embracing the grace of God as the only means of fulfilling the law, they most bitterly fought the central doctrine of Christianity and even persecuted its advocates. Like Ishmael, they were born of Hagar, the handmaid or slave woman; like him, they were Abraham\'s sons only "after the flesh," and their ultimate fate is foreshadowed in the casting out of Hagar and her son. They could not expect to maintain the connection with the true Israel, and even in case they should acclaim Christ their Messiah they were not to be the leaders of the church or the expounders of its teachings (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gal\',4,\'21-28\');">Ga 4:21-28</a>).<P>(2) The son of Nethaniah (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',40,\'8-\');">Jer 40:8</A>-<a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',40,\'1-18\');">41:18</a>; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',25,\'23-25\');">2Ki 25:23-25</a>). It is a dreary story of jealousy and treachery which Jeremiah has recorded in chapters 40, 41 of his book. After the destruction of Jerusalem and the deportation of the better class of Jewish citizens, it was necessary to provide for some sort of a government in the depopulated country. Public order had to be restored and maintained; the crops of the fields were endangered and had to be taken care of. It was thus only common political prudence that dictated to the king of Babylon the setting up of a governor for the remnant of Judah. He chose Gedaliah, the son of Ahikam, for the difficult position. The new officer selected for his place of residence the city of Mizpah, where he was soon joined by Jeremiah. All the captains of the Jewish country forces came to Mizpah with their men and put themselves under Gedaliah\'s orders (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',40,13);">Jer 40:13</a>). Ishmael the son of Nethaniah, the son of Elishama "of the seed royal" (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',25,25);">2Ki 25:25</a>) was among their number<65>all of which must have been rather gratifying to the new governor. But he was destined to be cruelly disappointed. A traitor was among the captains that had gathered around him. Yet the governor might have prevented his dastardly scheme. Johnnan, the son of Kareah, and other loyal captains warned him of the treachery of Ishmael, telling him he was induced by Baalis, the Ammonite king, to assassinate the governor. But the governor\'s faith in Ishmael was not to be shaken; he even looked upon Johanan\'s report as false and calumnious (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',40,16);">Jer 40:16</a>).<P>About 2 months after the destruction of Jerusalem, Ishmael was ready to strike the mortal blow. With 10 men he came to Mizpah, and there, at a banquet given in his honor, he killed Gedaliah and all the Jews and Chaldeans that were with him. He succeeded in keeping the matter secret, for, 2 days after the horrible deed, he persuaded a party of 80 pious Jews to enter the city and killed all but 10 of them, throwing their bodies into a pit. These men were coming from the ruins of the Temple with the offerings which they had intended to leave at Jerusalem. Now they had found out, to their great distraction, that the city was laid waste and the Temple destroyed. So they passed by Mizpah, their beards shaven, their clothes rent, and with cuts about their persons (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',41,5);">Jer 41:5</a>). We may, indeed, ask indignantly, Why this new atrocity? The answer may be found in the fact that Ishmael did not kill all of the men. He spared 10 of them because they promised him some hidden treasures. This shows his motive. He was a desperate man and just then carrying out a desperate undertaking. He killed those peaceful citizens because of their money, and money he needed to realize his plans. They were those of a traitor to his country, inasmuch as he intended to deport the inhabitants of Mizpah to the land of his high confederate, the king of the Ammonites. Among the captives were Jeremiah and the daughters of the Jewish king. But his efforts came to naught. When Johnnan and the other captains were told of Ishmael\'s unheard-of actions, they immediately pursued the desperate adventurer and overtook him by the "great waters that are in Gibeon." Unfortunately, they failed to capture Ishmael; for he managed to escape with eight men to the Ammonites.<P>(3) A descendant of Benjamin and the son of Azel (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',8,38);">1Ch 8:38</a>; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',9,44);">9:44</A>).<P>(4) The father of Zebadiah who was "the ruler of the house of Judah, in all the king\'s (Jehoshaphat, <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',19,8);">2Ch 19:8</a>) matters" (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',19,11);">2Ch 19:11</a>).<P>(5) The son of Jehohanan, and a "captain of hundreds," who lived at the time of Jehoiada and Joash (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',23,1);">2Ch 23:1</a>).<P>(6) One of the sons of Pashhur the priest. He was one of those men who had married foreign women and were compelled to "put away their wives" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ezr\',10,22);">Ezr 10:22</a>).`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=GEDALIAH">GEDALIAH</a>`8';
isbe[4684]='Ishmael (2)`(Ismael):<P>(1) the King James Version "Ismael" (Judith 2:23), the son of Abraham by Hagar.<P>(2) 1Esdras 9:22 (King James Version, the Revised Version (British and American) "Ismael"), corresponding to Ishmael in <a onClick="return mV(\'Ezr\',10,22);">Ezr 10:22</a>. See preceding article <a href="study/isbe/search.html?string=ISHMAEL+(1)">ISHMAEL (1).``1';
isbe[4685]='Ishmaelites`ish\'-ma-el-its (yishme\'e\'lim): The supposed descendants of Ishmael, the son of Abraham and Hagar, whom Abraham sent away from him after the birth of Isaac (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',21,\'14-21\');">Ge 21:14-21</a>). The sons of Ishmael are given in <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',25,13,14);">Ge 25:13-14</a>; they were twelve in number and gave rise to as many tribes, but the term Ishmaelite has a broader signification, as appears from <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',37,28,36);">Ge 37:28, 36</a>, where it is identified with Midianite. From <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',16,12);">Ge 16:12</a> it may be inferred that it was applied to the Bedouin of the desert region east of the Jordan generally, for the character there assigned to Ishmael, "His hand shall be against every man, and every man\'s hand against him," fits the habits of Bedouin in all ages. Such was the character of the Midianites as described in <a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',7,\'1-\');">Jud 7</a>, who are again identified with the Ishmaelites (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',8,24);">8:24</A>). These references show that the Ishmaelites were not confined to the descendants of the son of Abraham and Hagar, but refer to the desert tribes in general, like "the children of the east" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',7,12);">Jud 7:12</a>).``138';
isbe[4686]='Ishmaiah`ish-ma\'-ya (yishma\'yah, "Yah is hearing"):<P>(1) A man of Gibeon, chief of David\'s 30 great warriors, who came to him at Ziklag (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',12,4);">1Ch 12:4</a>, the King James Version "Ismaiah").<P>(2) Chief of the armed contingent of the tribe of Zebulun, which served David in the monthly order of the tribes (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',27,19);">1Ch 27:19</a>).``1';
isbe[4687]='Ishmeelites`ish\'-me-el-its (yishme\'e\'li).`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ISHMAELITES">ISHMAELITES</a>`1';
isbe[4688]='Ishmerai`ish\'-me-ri (yishmeray, from shamar, meaning "to hedge about," i.e. "to guard," and therefore a "guard," "protector"): A descendant of Benjamin, son of Epaal, resident of Jerusalem, one of the "heads of fathers\' houses throughout their generations, chief men" (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',8,18);">1Ch 8:18</a>).``1';
isbe[4689]='Ishod`i\'-shod, ish\'-od (\'ishehodh): the King James Version <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',7,18);">1Ch 7:18</a> for <a href="study/isbe/search.html?string=ISHHOD">ISHHOD</A> (which see).``1';
isbe[4690]='Ishpah`ish\'-pa (yishpah, "firm," "strong"): A man of the tribe of Benjamin, of the house of Beriah (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',8,16);">1Ch 8:16</a>).``1';
isbe[4691]='Ishpan`ish\'-pan (yishpan, literally, "he will hide"): Descendant of Benjamin, son of Shashak, one of "the chief men, heads of fathers\' houses"; lived at Jerusalem (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',8,22);">1Ch 8:22</a>).``1';
isbe[4692]='Ishuah; Isuah`ish\'-u-a, is\'-u-a (yishwah, literally, "he will level").`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ISHUAI">ISHUAI</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ISHVAH">ISHVAH</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ISHVI">ISHVI</a>`1';
isbe[4693]='Ishuai, Ishui`ish\'-u-i, ish\'-u-i (yishwi "level").`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ISHVI">ISHVI</a>`1';
isbe[4694]='Ishvah`ish\'-va (yishwah, "even," "level"; the King James Version Ishuah and Isuah): Second son of Asher (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',46,17);">Ge 46:17</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',7,30);">1Ch 7:30</a>). As only the families of his brothers Ishvi, etc., are mentioned in <a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',26,44);">Nu 26:44</a>, the supposition is that he left no issue.``1';
isbe[4695]='Ishvi`ish\'-vi (yishwi, "equal"):<P>(1) The third son of Asher (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',46,17);">Ge 46:17</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',7,30);">1Ch 7:30</a>), and founder of the family of the Ishvites (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',26,44);">Nu 26:44</a>, the King James Version "Jesuites"), the King James Version "Isui," "Jesui," and "Ishui."<P>(2) The name is also found among the sons of Saul (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',14,49);">1Sa 14:49</a>), the King James Version "Ishui."``1';
isbe[4696]='Island; Isle`i\'-land, il<P>(1) \'i, "island" or "isle"; the American Standard Revised Version has "coast" or "coast-land" in <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',20,6);">Isa 20:6</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',23,2,6);">23:2, 6</a>; the Revised Version margin has "coast-lands" in <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',10,5);">Ge 10:5</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',11,11);">Isa 11:11</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',24,15);">24:15</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',59,18);">59:18</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',25,22);">Jer 25:22</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',39,6);">Eze 39:6</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Dan\',11,18);">Da 11:18</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Zep\',2,11);">Ze 2:11</a>; the Revised Version margin has "sea-coast" in <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',47,4);">Jer 47:4</a>.<P>(2) plural \'iyim, the King James Version "wild beasts of the islands," the Revised Version (British and American) "wolves," the Revised Version margin "howling creatures" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',13,22);">Isa 13:22</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',34,14);">34:14</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',50,39);">Jer 50:39</a>).<P>(3) nesion, "small island" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',27,16);">Ac 27:16</a>)<P>(4) nesos, "island" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',13,6);">Ac 13:6</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',27,26);">27:26</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',28,1,7,9,11);">28:1, 7, 9, 11</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',1,9);">Re 1:9</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',6,14);">6:14</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',16,20);">16:20</a>):<P>Except as noted above, \'i in the Revised Version (British and American) is translated "isle" or "island." <a href="study/isbe/search.html?string=ARVAD">ARVAD</A> (which see), a Phoenician island-city north of Tripoli, Syria, is mentioned in <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',10,18);">Ge 10:18</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',1,16);">1Ch 1:16</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',27,8,11);">Eze 27:8, 11</a>. This and Tyre were the only important islands on the coast, both of them very small. We find references to Kittim or Chittim, Cyprus (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',10,4);">Ge 10:4</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',24,24);">Nu 24:24</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',1,7);">1Ch 1:7</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',23,1,12);">Isa 23:1, 12</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',2,10);">Jer 2:10</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',27,6);">Eze 27:6</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Dan\',11,30);">Da 11:30</a>); to Elisha, perhaps Carthage (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',10,4);">Ge 10:4</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',1,7);">1Ch 1:7</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',27,7);">Eze 27:7</a>); to "isles of the nations" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',10,5);">Ge 10:5</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Zep\',2,11);">Ze 2:11</a>); to "isles of the sea" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Est\',10,1);">Es 10:1</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',11,11);">Isa 11:11</A>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',24,15);">Isa 24:15</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',26,18);">Eze 26:18</a>); to "Tarshish and the isles" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',72,10);">Ps 72:10</a>; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',66,19);">Isa 66:19</a>); to "isle (the Revised Version margin "sea-coast") of Caphtor" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',47,4);">Jer 47:4</a>). Communication with these islands or distant coasts is kept up by the Tyrians (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',27,3,15);">Eze 27:3, 15</a>). The Jews were not a maritime people, and in early times their geographical knowledge was very limited. Of 32 Old Testament passages referring to "island" or "isle," 25 are in Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel. In the New Testament, besides the passages noted above, and Patmos (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',1,9);">Re 1:9</a>), various islands are mentioned by name in connection with the voyages of Paul, e.g. Cyprus, Crete, Lesbos, Samos, Samothrace, Chios, Melita, Sicily (Syracuse, <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',28,12);">Ac 28:12</a>). "Jackals" is a perfectly possible translation of \'iyim (the King James Version "wild beasts of the islands," the Revised Version (British and American) "wolves," the Revised Version margin "howling creatures").`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=COAST">COAST</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=GEOGRAPHY">GEOGRAPHY</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=JACKAL">JACKAL</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=WOLF">WOLF</a>`37';
isbe[4697]='Isles of the Gentiles`(<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',10,5);">Ge 10:5</a>): the American Standard Revised Version "isles (margin "coast-lands") of the nations," said of the territories of the sons of Japheth. The reference is to the coasts of the Western Mediterranean, with their islands (compare "isles of the sea," <a onClick="return mV(\'Est\',10,1);">Es 10:1</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',26,18);">Eze 26:18</a>, etc.).`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=TABLE+OF+NATIONS">TABLE OF NATIONS</a>`1';
isbe[4698]='Ismachiah`is-ma-ki\'-a (yicmakhyahu, "Yah will sustain"): One of the "overseers under the hand of Conaniah and Shimei his brother, by the appointment of Hezekiah the king, and Azariah the ruler of the house of God" (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',31,13);">2Ch 31:13</a>).``1';
isbe[4699]='Ismael`is\'-ma-el.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ISHMAEL">ISHMAEL</a>`1';
isbe[4700]='Ismaerus`is-ma-e\'-rus (Ismaeros): the King James Version "Omaerus" (1Esdras 9:34), corresponding to Amram in <a onClick="return mV(\'Ezr\',10,34);">Ezr 10:34</a>.``1';
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