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isbe[2101]='Chun`chun (kun, "founding").`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=CUN">CUN</a>`1';
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isbe[2102]='Church`church:<p><b>I. PRE-CHRISTIAN HISTORY OF THE TERM</b><p><b>II. ITS ADOPTION BY JESUS</b><p><b>III. ITS USE IN THE NEW TESTAMENT</b><P class="in15">1. In the Gospels<P class="in15">2. In Acts<P class="in15">3. In the Pauline Epistles<p><b>IV. THE NOTES OF THE CHURCH</b><P class="in15">1. Faith<P class="in15">2. Fellowship<P class="in15">3. Unity<P class="in15">4. Consecration<P class="in15">5. Power<p><b>V. ORGANIZATION OF THE CHURCH</b><P class="in15">1. The General and Prophetic Ministry<P class="in15">2. The Local and Practical Ministry<P><b>LITERATURE</b><hr /><P>The word "church," which is derived from kuriakos, "of or belonging to the Lord," represents in the English Versions of the Bible of the New Testament the Greek word ekklesia; Latin, ecclesia. It is with the signification of this word ekklesia as it meets us in the New Testament, and with the nature of the society which the word is there used to describe, that the present article is concerned.<p>I. Pre-Christian History of the Term.<P>Although ekklesia soon became a distinctively Christian word, it has its own pre-Christian history; and to those, whether Jews or Greeks, who first heard it applied to the Christian society it would come with suggestions of familiar things. Throughout the Greek world and right down to New Testament times (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',19,39);">Ac 19:39</a>), ekklesia was the designation of the regular assembly of the whole body of citizens in a free city-state, "called out" (Greek ek, "out," and kalein, "to call") by the herald for the discussion and decision of public business. The Septuagint translators, again, had used the word to render the Hebrew qahal, which in the Old Testament denotes the "congregation" or community of Israel, especially in its religious aspect as the people of God. In this Old Testament sense we find ekklesia employed by Stephen in the Book of Acts, where he describes Moses as "he that was in the church (the Revised Version, margin "congregation") in the wilderness" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',7,38);">Ac 7:38</a>). The word thus came into Christian history with associations alike for the Greek and the Jew. To the Greek it would suggest a self-governing democratic society; to the Jew a theocratic society whose members were the subjects of the Heavenly King. The pre-Christian history of the word had a direct bearing upon its Christian meaning, for the ekklesia of the New Testament is a "theocratic democracy" (Lindsay, Church and Ministry in the Early Centuries, 4), a society of those who are free, but are always conscious that their freedom springs from obedience to their King.<p>II. Its Adoption by Jesus.<P>According to <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',16,18);">Mt 16:18</a> the name ekklesia was first applied to the Christian society by Jesus Himself, the occasion being that of His benediction of Peter at Caesarea Philippi. The authenticity of the utterance has been called in question by certain critics, but on grounds that have no textual support and are made up of quite arbitrary presuppositions as to the composition of the First Gospel. It is true that Jesus had hitherto described the society He came to found as the "kingdom of God" or the "kingdom of heaven," a designation which had its roots in Old Testament teaching and which the Messianic expectations of Israel had already made familiar. But now when it was clear that He was to be rejected by the Jewish people (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',16,21);">Mt 16:21</a>), and that His society must move on independent lines of its own, it was natural that He should employ a new name for this new body which He was about to create, and thus should say to Peter, on the ground of the apostle\'s believing confession, "Upon this rock I will build my church." The adoption of this name, however, did not imply any abandonment of the ideas suggested by the conception of the kingdom. In this very passage (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',16,19);">Mt 16:19</a>) "the kingdom of heaven" is employed in a manner which, if it does not make the two expressions church and kingdom perfectly synonymous, at least compels us to regard them as closely correlative and as capable of translation into each other\'s terms. And the comparative disuse by the apostolic writers of the name "kingdom," together with their emphasis on the church, so far from showing that Christ\'s disciples had failed to understand His doctrine of the kingdom, and had substituted for it the more formal notion of the church, only shows that they had followed their Master\'s guidance in substituting for a name and a conception that were peculiarly Jewish, another name whose associations would enable them to commend their message more readily to the world at large.<p>III. Its Use in the New Testament.<P>1. In the Gospels:<P>Apart from the passage just referred to, the word ekklesia occurs in the Gospels on one other occasion only (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',18,17);">Mt 18:17</a>). Here, moreover, it may be questioned whether Our Lord is referring to the Christian church, or to Jewish congregations commonly known as synagogues (see the Revised Version, margin) The latter view is more in keeping with the situation, but the promise immediately given to the disciples of a power to bind and loose (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',18,18);">Mt 18:18</a>) and the assurance "Where two or three are gathered together in my name, there am I in the midst of them" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',18,20);">Mt 18:20</a>) are evidently meant for the people of Christ. If, as is probable, the ekklesia of <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',18,17);">Mt 18:17</a> is the Christian ekklesia of which Christ had already spoken to Peter, the words show that He conceived of the church as a society possessing powers of self-government, in which questions of discipline were to be decided by the collective judgment of the members.<P>2. In Acts:<P>In Acts the ekklesia has come to be the regular designation for the society of Christian believers, but is employed in two distinct senses. First in a local sense, to denote the body of Christians in a particular place or district, as in Jerusalem (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',5,11);">Ac 5:11</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',8,1);">8:1</a>), in Antioch (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',13,1);">Ac 13:1</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',15,22);">15:22</a>), in Caesarea (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',18,22);">Ac 18:22</a>)<29>a usage which reappears in the Apocalypse in the letters to the Seven Churches. Then in a wider and what may be called a universal sense, to denote the sum total of existing local churches (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',9,31);">Ac 9:31</a> the Revised Version (British and American)), which are thus regarded as forming one body.<P>3. In the Pauline Epistles:<P>In the Pauline Epistles both of these usages are frequent. Thus the apostle writes of "the church of the Thessalonians" (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Th\',1,1);">1Th 1:1</a>), "the church of God which is at Corinth" (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',1,2);">1Co 1:2</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',1,1);">2Co 1:1</a>). Indeed he localizes and particularizes the word yet further by applying it to a single Christian household or to little groups of believers who were accustomed to assemble in private houses for worship and fellowship (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',16,5);">Ro 16:5</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',16,19);">1Co 16:19</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Col\',4,15);">Col 4:15</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Phm\',1,2);">Phm 1:2</a>)<29>an employment of the word which recalls the saying of Jesus in <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',18,20);">Mt 18:20</a>. The universal use, again, may be illustrated by the contrast he draws between Jews and Greeks on the one hand and the church of God on the other (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',10,32);">1Co 10:32</a>), and by the declaration that God has set in the church apostles, prophets, and teachers (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',12,28);">1Co 12:28</a>).<P>But Paul in his later epistles has another use of ekklesia peculiar to himself, which may be described as the ideal use. The church, now, is the body of which Christ is the head (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eph\',1,22);">Eph 1:22</a>f; <a onClick="return mV(\'Col\',1,18,24);">Col 1:18, 24</a>). It is the medium through which God\'s manifold wisdom and eternal purpose are to be made known not only to all men, but to the principalities and powers in the heavenly places (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eph\',3,\'9-11\');">Eph 3:9-11</a>). It is the bride of whom He is the heavenly Bridegroom, the bride for whom in His love He gave Himself up, that He might cleanse and sanctify her and might present her to Himself a glorious church, a church without blemish, not having spot or wrinkle or any such thing (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eph\',5,25);">Eph 5:25</a>ff). This church clearly is not the actual church as we know it on earth, with its divisions, its blemishes, its shortcomings in faith and love and obedience. It is the holy and catholic church that is to be when the Bridegroom has completed the process of lustration, having fully "cleansed it by the washing of water with the word." It is the ideal which the actual church must keep before it and strive after, the ideal up to which it shall finally be guided by that Divine in-working power which is able to conform the body to the head, to make the bride worthy of the Bridegroom, so that God may receive in the church the glory that is His (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eph\',3,21);">Eph 3:21</a>).<p>IV. The Notes of the Church.<P>1. Faith:<P>Although a systematic doctrine of the church is neither to be found nor to be looked for in the New Testament, certain characteristic notes or features of the Christian society are brought before us from which we can form some conception as to its nature. The fundamental note is faith. It was to Peter confessing his faith in Christ that the promise came, "Upon this rock I will build my church" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',16,18);">Mt 16:18</a>). Until Jesus found a man full of faith He could not begin to build His church; and unless Peter had been the prototype of others whose faith was like his own, the walls of the church would never have risen into the air. Primarily the church is a society not of thinkers or workers or even of worshippers, but of believers. Hence, we find that "believers" or "they that believed" is constantly used as a synonym for the members of the Christian society (e.g. <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',2,44);">Ac 2:44</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',4,32);">4:32</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',5,14);">5:14</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ti\',4,12);">1Ti 4:12</a>). Hence, too, the rite of baptism, which from the first was the condition of entrance into the apostolic church and the seal of membership in it, was recognized as preeminently the sacrament of faith and of confession (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',2,41);">Ac 2:41</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',8,12,36);">8:12, 36</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',6,4);">Ro 6:4</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',12,13);">1Co 12:13</a>). This church-founding and church-building faith, of which baptism was the seal, was much more than an act of intellectual assent. It was a personal laying hold of the personal Saviour, the bond of a vital union between Christ and the believer which resulted in nothing less than a new creation (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',6,4);">Ro 6:4</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',8,1,2);">8:1-2</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',5,17);">2Co 5:17</a>).<P>2. Fellowship:<P>If faith in Christ is the fundamental note of the Christian society, the next is fellowship among the members. This follows from the very nature of faith as just described; for if each believer is vitally joined to Christ, all believers must stand in a living relation to one another. In Paul\'s favorite figure, Christians are members one of another because they are members in particular of the body of Christ (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',12,5);">Ro 12:5</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',12,27);">1Co 12:27</a>). That the Christian society was recognized from the first as a fellowship appears from the name "the brethren," which is so commonly applied to those who belong to it. In Acts the name is of very frequent occurrence (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',9,30);">Ac 9:30</a>, etc.), and it is employed by Paul in the epistles of every period of his career (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Th\',4,10);">1Th 4:10</a>, etc.). Similar testimony lies in the fact that "the koinonia" (English Versions "fellowship") takes its place in the earliest meetings of the church side by side with the apostles\' teaching and the breaking of bread and prayers (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',2,42);">Ac 2:42</a>). See <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=COMMUNION">COMMUNION</a>. The koinonia at first carried with it a community of goods (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',2,44);">Ac 2:44</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',4,32);">4:32</a>), but afterward found expression in the fellowship of ministration (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',8,4);">2Co 8:4</a>) and in such acts of Christian charity as are inspired by Christian faith (<a onClick="return mV(\'Hbr\',13,16);">Heb 13:16</a>). In the Lord\'s Supper, the other sacrament of the primitive church, the fellowship of Christians received its most striking and most sacred expression. For if baptism was especially the sacrament of faith, the Supper was distinctively the sacrament of love and fellowship<69>a communion or common participation in Christ\'s death and its fruits which carried with it a communion of hearts and spirits between the participants themselves.<P>3. Unity:<P>Although local congregations sprang up wherever the gospel was preached, and each of these enjoyed an independent life of its own, the unity of the church was clearly recognized from the first. The intercourse between Jerusalem and Antioch (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',11,22);">Ac 11:22</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',15,2);">15:2</a>), the conference held in the former city (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',15,6);">Ac 15:6</a>ff), the right hand of fellowship given by the elder apostles to Paul and Barnabas (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gal\',2,9);">Ga 2:9</a>), the untiring efforts made by Paul himself to forge strong links of love and mutual service between Gentile and Jewish Christians (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',8,\'1-\');">2Co 8</a>)<29>all these things serve to show how fully it was realized that though there were many churches, there was but one church. This truth comes to its complete expression in the epistles of Paul\'s imprisonment, with their vision of the church as a body of which Christ is the head, a body animated by one spirit, and having one Lord, one faith, one baptism, one God and Father of all (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eph\',4,4);">Eph 4:4</a>ff; <a onClick="return mV(\'Col\',1,18);">Col 1:18</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Col\',3,11);">3:11</a>). And this unity, it is to be noticed, is conceived of as a visible unity. Jesus Himself evidently conceived it so when He prayed for His disciples that they all might be one, so that the world might believe (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',17,21);">Joh 17:21</a>). And the unity of which Paul writes and for which he strove is a unity that finds visible expression. Not, it is true, in any uniformity of outward polity, but through the manifestation of a common faith in acts of mutual love (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eph\',4,3,13);">Eph 4:3, 13</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',9,\'1-\');">2Co 9</a>).<P>4. Consecration:<P>Another dominant note of the New Testament church lay in the consecration of its members. "Saints" is one of the most frequently recurring designations for them that we find. As thus employed, the word has in the first place an objective meaning; the sainthood of the Christian society consisted in its separation from the world by God\'s electing grace; in this respect it has succeeded to the prerogatives of Israel under the old covenant. The members of the church, as Peter said, are "an elect race, a royal priesthood, a holy nation, a people for God\'s own possession" (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Pe\',2,9);">1Pe 2:9</a>). But side by side with this sense of an outward and priestly consecration, the flame "saints" carried within it the thought of an ethical holiness<73>a holiness consisting, not merely in a status determined by relation to Christ, but in an actual and practical saintliness, a consecration to God that finds expression in character and conduct. No doubt the members of the church are called saints even when the living evidences of sainthood are sadly lacking. Writing to the Corinthian church in which he found so much to blame, Paul addresses its members by this title (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',1,2);">1Co 1:2</a>; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',6,11);">1Co 6:11</a>). But he does so for other than formal reasons<6E>not only because consecration to God is their outward calling and status as believers; but also because he is assured that a work of real sanctification is going on, and must continue to go on, in their bodies and their spirits which are His. For those who are in Christ are a new creation (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',5,17);">2Co 5:17</a>), and those to whom has come the separating and consecrating call (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',6,17);">2Co 6:17</a>) must cleanse themselves from all filthiness of the flesh and spirit, perfecting holiness in the fear of God (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',7,1);">2Co 7:1</a>). Paul looks upon the members of the church, just as he looks upon the church itself, with a prophetic eye; he sees them not as they are, but as they are to be. And in his view it is "by the washing of water with the word," in other words by the progressive sanctification of its members, that the church itself is to be sanctified and cleansed, until Christ can present it to Himself a glorious church, not having spot or wrinkle or any such thing (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eph\',5,26,27);">Eph 5:26-27</a>).<P>5. Power:<P>Yet another note of the church was spiritual power. When the name ekklesia was given by Jesus to the society He came to found, His promise to Peter included the bestowal of the gift of power (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',16,18,19);">Mt 16:18-19</a>). The apostle was to receive the "power of the keys," i.e. he was to exercise the privilege of opening the doors of the kingdom of heaven to the Jew (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',2,41);">Ac 2:41</a>) and to the Gentile (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',10,\'34-38\');">Ac 10:34-38</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',15,7);">15:7</a>). He was further to have the power of binding and loosing, i.e. of forbidding and permitting; in other words he was to possess the functions of a legislator within the spiritual sphere of the church. The legislative powers then bestowed upon Peter personally as the reward of his believing confession were afterward conferred upon the disciples generally (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',18,18);">Mt 18:18</a>; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',18,1);">Mt 18:1</a> and also <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',18,19,20);">Mt 18:19-20</a>), and at the conference in Jerusalem were exercised by the church as a whole (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',15,4,22);">Ac 15:4, 22</a>). The power to open the gates of the kingdom of heaven was expanded into the great missionary commission, "Go ye therefore, and make disciples of all the nations" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',28,19);">Mt 28:19</a>)<29>a commission that was understood by the apostolic church to be addressed not to the eleven apostles only, but to all Christ\'s followers without distinction (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',8,4);">Ac 8:4</a>, etc.). To the Christian society there thus belonged the double power of legislating for its own members and of opening the kingdom of heaven to all believers. But these double functions of teaching and government were clearly recognized as delegated gifts. The church taught the nations because Christ had bid her go and do it. She laid down laws for her own members because He had conferred upon her authority to bind and to loose. But in every exercise of her authority she relied upon Him from whom she derived it. She believed that Christ was with her alway, even unto the end of the world (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',28,20);">Mt 28:20</a>), and that the power with which she was endued was power from on high (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',24,49);">Lu 24:49</a>).<p>V. Organization of the Church.<P>It seems evident from the New Testament that Jesus gave His disciples no formal prescriptions for the organization of the church. In the first days after Pentecost they had no thought of separating themselves from the religious life of Israel, and would not realize the need of any distinct organization of their own. The temple-worship was still adhered to (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',2,46);">Ac 2:46</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',3,1);">3:1</a>), though it was supplemented by apostolic teaching, by prayer and fellowship, and by the breaking of bread (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',2,42,46);">Ac 2:42, 46</a>). Organization was a thing of gradual growth suggested by emerging needs, and the differentiation of function among those who were drawn into the service of the church was due to the difference in the gifts bestowed by God upon the church members (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',12,28);">1Co 12:28</a>). At first the Twelve themselves, as the immediate companions of Jesus throughout His ministry and the prime witnesses of the Christian facts and especially of the resurrection (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',1,21,22);">Ac 1:21-22</a>), were the natural leaders and teachers of the community. Apart from this, the earliest evidence of anything like organization is found in the distinction drawn by the Twelve themselves between the ministry of the word and the ministry of tables (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',6,2,4);">Ac 6:2, 4</a>)<29>a distinction which was fully recognized by Paul (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',12,6,8);">Ro 12:6, 8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',1,17);">1Co 1:17</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',9,14);">9:14</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',12,28);">12:28</a>), though he enlarged the latter type of ministry so as to include much more than the care of the poor. The two kinds of ministry, as they meet us at the first, may broadly be distinguished as the general and prophetic on the one hand, the local and practical on the other.<P>1. The General and Prophetic Ministry:<P>From <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',6,1);">Ac 6:1</a>ff we see that the Twelve recognized that they were Divinely called as apostles to proclaim the gospel; and Paul repeatedly makes the same claim for himself (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',1,17);">1Co 1:17</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',9,16);">9:16</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',3,6);">2Co 3:6</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',4,1);">4:1</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Col\',1,23);">Col 1:23</a>). But apostle ship was by no means confined to the Twelve (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',14,14);">Ac 14:14</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',16,7);">Ro 16:7</a>; compare Didache 11 4ff); and an itinerant ministry of the word was exercised in differing ways by prophets, evangelists, and teachers, as well as by apostles (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',12,28,29);">1Co 12:28-29</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eph\',4,11);">Eph 4:11</a>). The fact that Paul himself is variously described as an apostle, a prophet, a teacher (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',13,1);">Ac 13:1</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',14,14);">14:14</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ti\',2,7);">1Ti 2:7</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ti\',1,11);">2Ti 1:11</a>) appears to show that the prophetic ministry was not a ministry of stated office, but one of special gifts and functions. The apostle carried the good tidings of salvation to the ignorant and unbelieving (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gal\',2,7,8);">Ga 2:7-8</a>), the prophet (in the more specific sense of the word) was a messenger to the church (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',14,4,22);">1Co 14:4, 22</a>); and while the teacher explained and applied truth that was already possessed (<a onClick="return mV(\'Hbr\',5,12);">Heb 5:12</a>), the prophet was recognized by those who had spiritual discernment (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',2,15);">1Co 2:15</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',14,29);">14:29</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Jo\',4,1);">1Jo 4:1</a>) as the Divinely employed medium of fresh revelations (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',14,25,30,31);">1Co 14:25, 30-31</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eph\',3,5);">Eph 3:5</a>; compare Didache 4 1).<P>2. The Local and Practical Ministry:<P>The earliest examples of this are the Seven of Jerusalem who were entrusted with the care of the "daily ministration" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',6,1);">Ac 6:1</a>ff). With the growth of the church, however, other needs arose, and the local ministry is seen developing in two distinct directions. First there is the presbyter or elder, otherwise known as the bishop or overseer, whose duties, while still local, are chiefly of a spiritual kind (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',20,17,28,35);">Ac 20:17, 28, 35</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ti\',3,2,5);">1Ti 3:2, 5</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jam\',5,14);">Jas 5:14</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Pe\',5,2);">1Pe 5:2</a>). See <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=BISHOP">BISHOP</a>. Next there are the deacon and the deaconess (<a onClick="return mV(\'Phl\',1,1);">Php 1:1</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ti\',3,\'8-13\');">1Ti 3:8-13</a>), whose work appears to have lain largely in house to house visitation and a practical ministry to the poor and needy (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ti\',5,\'8-11\');">1Ti 5:8-11</a>). The necessities of government, of discipline, and of regular and stated instruction had thus brought it to pass that within New Testament times some of the functions of the general ministry of apostles and prophets were discharged by a local ministry. The general ministry, however, was still recognized to be the higher of the two. Paul addresses the presbyter- bishops of Ephesus in a tone of lofty spiritual authority (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',20,17);">Ac 20:17</a>ff). And according to the Didache, a true prophet when he visits a church is to take precedence over the resident bishops and deacons (Didache 10 7; 13 3).<P>LITERATURE.<P>Hort, The Christian Ecclesia; Lindsay, The Church and the Ministry in the Early Cents., lects I-V; Hatch, Bampton Lectures; Gwatkin, Early Church History to AD 313; Kostlin, article "Kirche" in See Hauck-Herzog, Realencyklopadie fur protestantische Theologie und Kirche; Armitage Robinson, article "Church" in Encyclopedia Biblica; Fairbairn Christ in Modern Theology, 513-34; Dargan, Ecclesiology; Denney, Studies in Theology, Ch viii.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=CHURCH+GOVERNMENT">CHURCH GOVERNMENT</a>`94';
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isbe[2103]='Church Government`guv\'-ern-ment:<p><b>I. APPROACH TO SUBJECT</b><P class="in15">1. The General Sense<P class="in15">2. The Local Sense<p><b>II. INTERNAL ORDER</b><P class="in15">1. Subjects of Admission<P class="in15">2. Definite Organizations<P class="in15">3. Ministers<P class="in30">(1) General<P class="in30">(2) Local<P class="in15">4. Ecclesiastical Functions<P class="in30">(1) Control of Membership<P class="in30">(2) Selection of Officers, etc.<P class="in30">(3) Observations of Ordinances<P class="in15">5. Independent (Autonomous) Organizations<p><b>III. EXTERNAL AUTHORITY</b><p><b>IV. COOPERATIVE RELATIONS</b><P><b>LITERATURE</b><hr /><P>The object here sought is to discover what kind of church government is mirrored in the New Testament. To do this with perfect definiteness is, no doubt, quite impossible. Certain general features, however, may clearly be seen.<p>I. Approach to the Subject.<P>The subject is best approached through the Greek word ekklesia, translated "church." Passing by the history of this word, and its connection with the Hebrew words \'edhah and qahal (which the Septuagint sometimes renders by ekklesia), we come at once to the New Testament usage. Two perfectly distinct senses are found, namely, a general and a local.<P>1. The General Sense:<P>Christ is "head over all things to the church, which is his body ...."(<a onClick="return mV(\'Eph\',1,22);">Eph 1:22</a>); "the general assembly and church of the firstborn who are enrolled in heaven" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Hbr\',12,23);">Heb 12:23</a>). Here we have "church" in the broadest sense, including all the redeemed in earth and heaven, and in all ages (see also <a onClick="return mV(\'Eph\',1,22);">Eph 1:22</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eph\',3,10);">3:10</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eph\',5,\'22-27\');">5:22-27</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Col\',1,24);">Col 1:24</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Hbr\',12,23);">Heb 12:23</a>).<P>2. The Local Sense:<P>Here the Scripture passages are very numerous. In some cases, the word is used in the singular, and in others the plural; in some it is used with reference to a specified church, and in others without such specification. In all cases the sense is local.<P>In <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',11,26);">Ac 11:26</a>, it is said that Paul and Barnabas were "gathered together with the church," where the church at Antioch is meant. In <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',14,23);">Ac 14:23</a>, Paul and Barnabas are said to have "appointed elders in every church," that is, churches which they had planted. In <a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',2,\'1-\');">Re 2</a> and <a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',3,\'1-\');">Re 3</a> the seven churches of Asia Minor are addressed. In <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',16,5);">Ac 16:5</a> we are told that the churches "were strengthened in the faith." On the local sense see, further, <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',8,1);">Ac 8:1</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',15,4);">15:4</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',16,5);">16:5</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',20,17);">20:17</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',16,4);">Ro 16:4</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',12,\'1-\');">1Co 12</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',6,4);">6:4</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',11,16);">11:16</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Gal\',1,2,22);">Ga 1:2, 22</a>, and many other places.<P>There are a few passages that do not seem exactly to fit into either of the above categories. Such, for example, are <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',18,17);">Mt 18:17</a> and <a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',12,28);">1Co 12:28</a>, where it seems best to understand a generic sense. Such, also, are passages like <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',9,31);">Ac 9:31</a>, and <a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',10,32);">1Co 10:32</a>, where a collective sense best suits the cases.<P>Church government in the New Testament applies only to the local bodies.<p>II. Internal Order.<P>With respect to the constitution and life of these New Testament churches, several points may be made out beyond reasonable doubt.<P>1. Subjects of Admission:<P>They were composed of persons who professed faith in Christ, and who were believed to have been regenerated, and who had been baptized. See <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',2,41,44,47);">Ac 2:41, 44, 47</a> (the Revised Version (British and American) "added to them"); <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',8,12);">Ac 8:12</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',1,8);">Ro 1:8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',6,4);">6:4</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',10,9,10);">10:9-10</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',1,2);">1Co 1:2</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Col\',1,2,4);">Col 1:2, 4</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ti\',6,12);">1Ti 6:12</a>, and others, where they are called "saints," "sons of God," "faithful brethren," "sanctified in Christ Jesus."<P>2. Definite Organizations:<P>They are definitely and permanently organized bodies, and not temporary and loose aggregations of individuals. It is quite impossible, for example, to regard the church at Antioch as a loose aggregation of people for a passing purpose. The letters of Paul to the churches at Rome, Corinth, Philippi, Thessalonica, cannot be regarded as addressed to other than permanent and definitely organized bodies.<P>3. Ministers:<P>They were served by two classes of ministers<72>one general, the other local.<P>(1) General.<P>At the head of these is the "apostle" (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',12,28);">1Co 12:28</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eph\',4,11);">Eph 4:11</a>). His official relation to the churches was general. He did not necessarily belong to the group of the original Eleven. Besides Matthias (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',1,26);">Ac 1:26</a>), Paul and Barnabas (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',9,5,6);">1Co 9:5-6</a>), James, the Lord\'s brother (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gal\',1,19);">Ga 1:19</a>), Andronicus and Junias (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',16,7);">Ro 16:7</a>) are reckoned as "apostles." The one invariable and necessary qualification of an apostle was that he should have seen the Lord after the Resurrection (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',1,22);">Ac 1:22</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',9,1);">1Co 9:1</a>). Another qualification was to have wrought "the signs of an apostle" (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',12,12);">2Co 12:12</a>; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',9,2);">1Co 9:2</a>). He was to bear witness to what he had seen and heard, to preach the gospel of the kingdom (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',1,8);">Ac 1:8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',1,17);">1Co 1:17</a>), to found churches and have a general care of them (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',11,28);">2Co 11:28</a>). From the nature of his chief qualification, his office was temporary.<P>Next comes the "prophet." His relation to the churches, also, was general. It was not necessary that he should have seen the Lord, but it appertained to his spiritual function that he should have revelations (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eph\',3,5);">Eph 3:5</a>). There is no indication that his office was in any sense administrative.<P>After the "prophet" come the "evangelist" and "teacher," the first, a traveling preacher, the second, one who had special aptitude for giving instruction.<P>After the "teacher" and "evangelist" follow a group of special gifts of "healing," "helps," "governments," "tongues." It may be that "helps" and "governments" are to be identified with "deacons" and "bishops," to be spoken of later. The other items in this part of Paul\'s list seem to refer to special charismata.<P>(2) Local.<P>There were two clearly distinct offices of a local and permanent kind in the New Testament churches. Paul (<a onClick="return mV(\'Phl\',1,1);">Php 1:1</a>) addresses "all the saints in Christ Jesus that are at Philippi, with the bishops and deacons."<P>See <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=BISHOP">BISHOP</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=DEACON">DEACON</a>.<P>The most common designation of the first of these officers is "elder" (presbuteros). In one passage (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eph\',4,11);">Eph 4:11</a>) he is called "pastor" (poimen). In <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',20,\'17-28\');">Ac 20:17-28</a>, it becomes clear that the office of elder, bishop, and pastor was one; for there the apostle charges the elders of the church at Ephesus to feed (pastor) the church in which the Holy Spirit has made them bishops (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Tts\',1,5,7);">Titus 1:5, 7</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Pe\',5,1,2);">1Pe 5:1-2</a>).<P>The function of the elders was, in general, spiritual, but involved an oversight of all the affairs of the church (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ti\',3,2);">1Ti 3:2</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ti\',5,17);">5:17</a>).<P>As to the second of the local church officers, it has to be said that little is given us in the New Testament. That the office of deacon originated with the appointment of the Seven in <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',6,\'1-\');">Ac 6</a> is not certain. If we compare the qualifications there given by the apostles with those given by Paul in <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ti\',3,\'8-13\');">1Ti 3:8-13</a>, it seems quite probable that the necessity which arose at Jerusalem, and which led to the appointment of the Seven was really the occasion for originating the office of deacon in the churches. The work assigned the Seven was secular, that is to say, the "service of tables." They were to relieve the apostles of that part of the work. A similar relation to the work of the elders seems to have been borne by that of the deacons.<P>Again, they exercised the highest ecclesiastical functions.<P>4. Ecclesiastical Functions:<P>(1) Control of Membership.<P>In <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',18,17);">Mt 18:17</a>, our Lord, by anticipation, lodges final action, in the sphere of church discipline, with the church. When the church has taken action, the matter is ended. There is no direction to take it to a higher court. In the church at Corinth, there was a man who was guilty of an infamous offense against purity. With regard to the case, Paul urged the most summary discipline (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',5,5);">1Co 5:5</a>). If the church should act upon the judgment which he communicated to them, they would act when "gathered together"; that is to say, action would be taken in conference of the church. In <a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',2,\'1-\');">2Co 2</a>, a reference to the case shows that they had acted upon his advice, and that the action was taken by the majority ("the many," the more, <a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',2,6);">2Co 2:6</a>). In <a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',2,\'1-\');">2Co 2</a> he counsels restoration of this excluded member now repentant. Exclusion and restoration of members were to be effected by a church. This, of course, carried with it the reception of members in the first instance.<P>(2) Selection of Officers, etc.<P>This was true in case of the Seven (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',6,\'3-13\');">Ac 6:3-13</a>; see other cases in <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',15,22);">Ac 15:22</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',16,3);">1Co 16:3</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',8,1);">2Co 8:1</a>ff; <a onClick="return mV(\'Phl\',2,25);">Php 2:25</a>). <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',14,23);">Ac 14:23</a> and <a onClick="return mV(\'Tts\',1,5);">Titus 1:5</a> seem, at first, to offset the passages just given. In one of these, Paul and Barnabas are said to have "appointed" (cheirotonesantes) elders in the churches which they had planted. But scholars of first quality, though themselves adhering to Presbyterial or Episcopal forms of church government, maintain that Paul and Barnabas ordained the elders whom the churches selected<65>that they "appointed" them in the usual way, by the suffrages of the members of the churches concerned. The word rendered "appoint" in <a onClick="return mV(\'Tts\',1,5);">Tit 1:5</a> (katasteses) is more easily understood as referring to ordination instead of selection.<P>(3) Observation of Ordinances.<P>Paul gives direction (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',11,\'20-34\');">1Co 11:20-34</a>) to the church at Corinth about the observance of the Lord\'s Supper. These directions are given, not to any officer or set of officers, but to the church. Ecclesiastically, of course, the two ordinances are on the same level; and, if one of them had been committed to the custody, so to say, of the churches, so must the other.<P>5. Independent (Autonomous) Organizations:<P>The management of their business was in their own hands. Paul wrote the church at Corinth: "Let all things be done decently and in order" (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',14,40);">1Co 14:40</a>). In that comprehensive injunction, given to a church, is implied control of its affairs by the church.<p>III. External Authority.<P>The investigation up to this point places us in position to see that there is in the New Testament no warrant for ecclesiastical grades in the ministry of the churches, by which there may be created an ascending series of rulers who shall govern the churches merged into one vast ecclesiastical organization called "the church." So, also, we are in position to see that there is no warrant for an ascending series of courts which may review any "case" that originates in a local church. We may see, on the contrary, that to each local church has been committed by Christ the management of its own affairs; and that He had endowed every such church with ecclesiastical competency to perform every function that any ecclesiastical body has a right to perform.<P>As the churches are not to be dominated by any external ecclesiastical authority, so they are not to be interfered with, in their church life, by civil government. Jesus taught that Christians should be good citizens (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',22,\'15-22\');">Mt 22:15-22</a>); so did the apostles (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',13,\'1-7\');">Ro 13:1-7</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Pe\',2,\'13-16\');">1Pe 2:13-16</a>). Jesus also taught the spirituality of His Kingdom: "My kingdom is not of this world" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',18,36);">Joh 18:36</a>). It follows that only where the life of a church touched the civic life of the community has the civil authority any right to interfere.<p>IV. Cooperative Relations.<P>While each local church, according to the New Testament, is independent of every other in the sense that no other has jurisdiction over it, yet cooperative relations were entered into by New Testament churches. Examples and indications of that may be found in <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',15,26,27);">Ro 15:26-27</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',8,\'1-\');">2Co 8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',9,\'1-\');">9</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Gal\',2,10);">Ga 2:10</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',15,1);">Ro 15:1</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'3Jo\',1,8);">3Joh 1:8</a>. The principle of cooperation effective in those cases is susceptible of indefinite expansion. Churches may properly cooperate in matters of discipline, by seeking and giving counsel, and by respecting each other\'s disciplinary measures. In the great, paramount business of evangelizing and teaching the nations, they may cooperate in a multitude of ways. There is no sphere of general Christian activity in which the churches may not voluntarily and freely cooperate for the betterment of the world, the salvation of humanity.<P>LITERATURE.<P>Hort, The Christian Ecclesia; Hatch, Organization of the Early Christian Churches; Whitley, Church, Ministry and Sacraments in the New Testament; Lindsay, The Church and the Ministry in the Early Cents.; French, Synonyms of New Testament; Vitringa, De Synagoga Vetere; Holzinger, ZAW; Schurer, Schurer, History of the Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ, II; Driver, Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament; Thayer, New Testament Lexicon, and Cremer, Biblical Theol. Lexicon, under the word, "ekklesia" and "sunagoge"; Neumann, Rom. Staat und die all-gemeine Kirche; Ramsay, Church in the Roman Empire.; Lightfoot, "The Christian Ministry," in Commentary on Philippians; Harvey, The Church; Dagg, Church Order; Hovey, Religion and the State; Owen, Church Government; Ladd, Principles of Church Polity; Dexter, Congregationalism; Hodge, Discussions in Church Polity; Abbey, Ecclesiastical Constitutions; Hooker, Ecclesiastical Polity; Jacob, Ecclesiastical Polity; Bore, The Church and Its Ministry; Dollinger, The Church and The Churches; Stanley, Lectures on the Eastern Church; Dargan, Ecclesiology.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=BISHOP">BISHOP</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=GOVERNMENT">GOVERNMENT</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=MINISTRY">MINISTRY</a>`61';
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isbe[2104]='Churches, Robbers of`church\'-iz`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ROBBERS+OF+TEMPLES">ROBBERS OF TEMPLES</a>`1';
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isbe[2105]='Churches, Seven``<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ANGELS+OF+THE+SEVEN+CHURCHES">ANGELS OF THE SEVEN CHURCHES</a>`1';
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isbe[2106]='Churl`churl (kilay or kelay): The Hebrew word occurs only in <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',32,5,7);">Isa 32:5, 7</a>, in the latter verse in a form slightly modified so as to produce a pleasing assonance with the word immediately following. The word probably means "crafty" or "miserly," both ideas being suitable to the context, though "miserly" accords with the setting in Isaiah somewhat better.<P>In <a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',25,3);">1Sa 25:3</a> the Hebrew qasheh which means "hard," "severe," "rough," is rendered "churlish." In Saxon, churl, as the name for the lowest order of freemen, came to be used of persons boorish in manner. The rough and ill-mannered Nabal is aptly described as churlish.``156';
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isbe[2107]='Chushan-Rishathaim`ku-shan-rish-a-tha\'-im.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=CUSHAN-RISHATHAIM">CUSHAN-RISHATHAIM</a>`1';
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isbe[2108]='Chusi`ku\'-si, (Chous): A place only named in Judith 7:18, as near Ekrebel on the brook Mochmur. It was in central Palestine, and has with some probability been identified with Quzah, a village 5 1/2 miles south of Nablus and 5 miles west of Agrabeh (Ekrebel).``1';
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isbe[2109]='Chuzas`ku\'-zas, chu\'-zas (Chouzas; the King James Version Chuza): The steward of Herod Antipas. In <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',8,3);">Lu 8:3</a> we read that his wife Joanna, "and Susanna, and many others," ministered to Christ and His disciples.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=JOANNA">JOANNA</a>`1';
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isbe[2110]='Ciccar`sik\'-ar (kikkar, "circle"): Used of the circle of the Jordan (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',13,10);">Ge 13:10</a>, Hebrew).`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=PLAIN">PLAIN</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=CITIES+OF+THE+PLAIN">CITIES OF THE PLAIN</a>`1';
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isbe[2111]='Cieled; Cieling`seld, sel\'-ing.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=CEILED">CEILED</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=CEILING">CEILING</a>`1';
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isbe[2112]='Cilicia`si-lish\'-i-a (he Kilikia): An important province at the southeast angle of Asia Minor, corresponding nearly with the modern Turkish vilayet of Adana; enfolded between the Taurus mountains and the Mediterranean Sea, with the Amanus range on the east and Pamphylia on the west; chief rivers, the Pyramus, Sarus, Cydnus and Calycadnus. The character of Cilician history has been largely determined by the physical features of the province. It is divided by nature into a mountainous part to the west, called Tracheia, and a broad, alluvial plain, hot and fertile, toward the east, termed Campestris or Pedias. Cilicia has always been isolated from its neighbors by land by its encircling mountains, save for its two famous mountain passes, the "Syrian Gates," which offer an easy road to Antioch and the south, and the wonderful "Cilician Gates," which open a road to central and western Asia Minor. Through these passes the armies and the pilgrims, the trade and the travel of the centuries have made their way. Alexander was one of the most renowned leaders of such expeditions, and at Issus he met and shattered the power of the Persian empire.<P>The early settlers of Cilicia are held to have been Semitic Syrians and Phoenicians, but in the still earlier days the inhabitants must have been Hittites. While few Hittite remains have been brought to light in Cilicia proper, the province was so surrounded by Hittites, and such important works of Hittite art and industry remain on the outskirts of the province, as at Ivriz, Marash, Sinjirli and Sakche Geuzi, that the intervening territory could hardly fail to be overspread with the same civilization and imperial power. See Professor John Garstang\'s The Land of the Hittites.<P>Cilicia appears as independent under Syennesis, a contemporary of Alyattes of Lydia, 610 BC. Later it passed under the Persian sway, but retained its separate line of kings. After Alexander the Seleucid rulers governed Cilicia from Antioch. The disturbances of the times enabled the pirates so to multiply and establish themselves in their home base, in Cilicia, Tracheia, that they became the scourge of the Mediterranean until their power was broken by Pompey (67-66 BC). Cilicia was by degrees incorporated in the Roman administration, and Cicero, the orator, was governor (51-50 BC).<P>The foremost citizen of the province was Saul of Tarsus (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',21,39);">Ac 21:39</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',22,3);">22:3</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',23,34);">23:34</a>). Students or pilgrims from Cilicia like himself disputed with Stephen (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',6,9);">Ac 6:9</a>). Some of the earliest labors of the great apostle were near his home, in Syria and Cilicia (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gal\',1,21);">Ga 1:21</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',15,23,41);">Ac 15:23, 41</a>). On his voyage to Rome he sailed across the sea which is off Cilicia (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',27,5);">Ac 27:5</a>). Constantinople and Antioch may be regarded as the front and back door of Asia Minor, and as the former was not founded till the 4th century, Asia Minor may be regarded as fronting during apostolic days on Antioch. Cilicia was intimately connected with its neighbor province on the south. The first Christian apostles and evangelists followed the great highways, through the famous mountain passes, and carried the religion of Jesus to Asia Minor from Antioch as a base.<P>Armenians migrating from the north founded kingdom in Cilicia under Roupen which was terminated by the overthrow of King Levon, or Leo, by the conquering Turks in 1393. A remnant of this kingdom survives in the separate Armenian catholicate of Sis, which has jurisdiction over few bishoprics, and Armenians are among the most virile of the present inhabitants of the province.``191';
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isbe[2113]='Cinnamon`sin\'-a-mun (qinnamon; kinnamomon): Mentioned, like cassia, as a perfume. In <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',30,23);">Ex 30:23</a> it is one of the ingredients of the "holy anointing oil"; in <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',7,17);">Pr 7:17</a> it is, along with myrrh and aloes, a perfume for a bed; in <a onClick="return mV(\'Sgs\',4,14);">So 4:14</a> it is a very precious spice. Cinnamon is (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',18,13);">Re 18:13</a>) part of the merchandise of "Babylon the great."<P>Cinnamon is the product of Cinnamomum zeylanicum, a laurel-like plant widely cultivated in Ceylon and Java. It has a profuse white blossom, succeeded by a nut from which the fragrant oil is obtained. The wood is the inner bark from branches which have reached a diameter of from 2 to 3 inches; the epidermis and pulpy matter are carefully scraped off before drying. In commerce the cheaper Cassia ligra of China is sometimes substituted for true cinnamon, and it is thought by some authorities that this was the true cinnamon of the ancients.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=CASSIA">CASSIA</a>`117';
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isbe[2114]='Cinneroth`sin\'-e-roth (kinneroth).`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=CHINNERETH">CHINNERETH</a>`1';
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isbe[2115]='Cirama`si-ra\'-ma, sir\'-a-ma.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=KIRAMA">KIRAMA</a>`1';
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isbe[2116]='Circle`sur\'-k\'-l: Is used with reference to the vault of the heavens (hugh) in <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',40,22);">Isa 40:22</a>, and in a similar sense in The <span class="noTag">Wisdom of Solomon 13:2</span> (Revised Version margin), "circle of stars" (kuklos astron). It is also used in the sense of surrounding territory, as in the expression "circle of Jordan" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',13,10);">Ge 13:10</a> the Revised Version, margin).`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=CICCAR">CICCAR</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ASTRONOMY">ASTRONOMY</a>`1';
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isbe[2117]='Circuit`sur\'-kit, "a going around": Used to represent several Hebrew words in several senses, e.g. the sun\'s orbit (tequphah), <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',19,6);">Ps 19:6</a>; the vault of the heavens (chugh), <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',22,14);">Job 22:14</a> the King James Version; the circuit of the winds (cabhibh), <a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',1,6);">Ec 1:6</a> (see <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ASTRONOMY">ASTRONOMY</a>); Samuel\'s visiting of communities (cabhabh), <a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',7,16);">1Sa 7:16</a>. In the Revised Version (British and American) the idea of encircling or "fetching a compass" (the King James Version) is expressed by the phrase "to make a circuit" (hacebh), <a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',5,23);">2Sa 5:23</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',3,9);">2Ki 3:9</a>; and in the Revised Version, margin it indicates a plain (ha-kikkar), <a onClick="return mV(\'Neh\',3,22);">Ne 3:22</a>. The Greek perielthontes is translated in the same way (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',28,13);">Ac 28:13</a>), but the Revised Version, margin reads "cast loose," following the Westcott and Hort, The New Testament in Greek reading perielontes.``81';
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isbe[2118]='Circumcision`sur-kum-sizh\'-un (mul, muloth; peritome): The removal of the foreskin is a custom that has prevailed, and prevails, among many races in different parts of the world<6C>in America, Africa and Australia. It was in vogue among the western Semites<65>Hebrews, Arabians, Moabites, Ammonites, Edomites, Egyptians, but was unknown among the Semites of the Euphrates. In Canaan the Philistines were an exception, for the term "uncircumcised" is constantly used in connection with them. Generally speaking, the rite of circumcision was a precondition of the enjoyment of certain political and religious privileges (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',12,48);">Ex 12:48</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',44,9);">Eze 44:9</a>); and in view of the fact that in the ancient world religion played such an important role in life, it may be assumed that circumcision, like many other strange customs whose original significance is no longer known, originated in connection with religion. Before enumerating the different theories which have been advanced with regard to the origin and original significance of circumcision, it may be of advantage to consider some of the principal references to the rite in the Old Testament.<P>1. Circumcision in the Old Testament:<P>In the account of the institution of the covenant between Yahweh and Abraham which Priestly Code (P) gives (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',17,\'1-\');">Ge 17</a>), circumcision is looked upon as the ratification of the agreement. Yahweh undertook to be the God of Abraham and of his descendants. Abraham was to be the father of a multitude of nations and the founder of a line of kings. He and his descendants were to inherit Canaan. The agreement thus formed was permanent; Abraham\'s posterity should come within the scope of it. But it was necessary to inclusion in the covenant that every male child should be circumcised on the 8th day. A foreigner who had attached himself as a slave to a Hebrew household had to undergo the rite<74>the punishment for its non-fulfilment being death or perhaps excommunication. According to <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',12,48);">Ex 12:48</a> (also P) no stranger could take part in the celebration of the Passover unless he had been circumcised. In the Book of Joshua (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',5,\'2-9\');">Jos 5:2-9</a>) we read that the Israelites were circumcised at Gilgal ("Rolling"), and thus the "reproach of Egypt" was "rolled away." Apparently circumcision in the case of the Hebrews was prohibited during the Egyptian period<6F>circumcision being a distinctive mark of the ruling race. It is noticeable that flint knives were used for the purpose. This use of an obsolete instrument is one of many proofs of conservatism in religion. According to the strange and obscure account of the circumcision by Zipporah of her eldest son (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',4,25);">Ex 4:25</a>) the performance of the rite in the case of the son apparently possesses a vicarious value, for thereby Moses becomes a "bridegroom of blood." The marriage bond is ratified by the rite of blood (see 4 below). But it is possible that the author\'s meaning is that owing to the fact that Moses had not been circumcised (the "reproach of Egypt") he was not fit to enter the matrimonial estate (see 3 below).<P>2. Theories of Origin:<P>The different theories with regard to the origin of circumcision may be arranged under four heads:<P>(1) Herodotus (ii.37), in dealing with circumcision among the Egyptians, suggests that it was a sanitary operation. But all suggestions of a secular, i.e. non-religious, origin to the rite, fail to do justice to the place and importance of religion in the life of primitive man.<P>(2) It was a tribal mark. Tattooed marks frequently answered the purpose, although they may have been originally charms. The tribal mark enabled one member of the tribe to recognize another and thus avoid injuring or slaying a fellow-tribesman. It also enabled the tribal deity to recognize a member of the tribe which was under his special protection. A mark was placed on Cain to indicate that he was under the special protection of Yahweh (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',4,15);">Ge 4:15</a>). It has been suggested, in the light of <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',44,5);">Isa 44:5</a> the Revised Version, margin, that the employer\'s mark was engraved (tattooed) on the slave\'s hand. The prophet represents Jews as inscribing on their hands that they belong to Yahweh. The walls of Jerusalem are engraved on Yahweh\'s palms (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',49,16);">Isa 49:16</a>). On the other hand "cuttings in the flesh" are prohibited in <a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',19,28);">Le 19:28</a> because they were common in the case of the non-Jewish religions. Such tattooed marks might be made in conspicuous places when it was necessary that they should be easily seen, but there might be reason for secrecy so that the marks might be known only to the members of the tribe in question.<P>(3) It was a rite which celebrated the coming of age of the person. It signified the attainment of puberty and of the right to marry and to enjoy full civic privileges.<P>(4) As human sacrifices began to be done away with, the sacrifice of the most easily removed portion of the anatomy provided a vicarious offering.<P>(5) It was a sacramental operation. "The shedding of blood" was necessary to the validity of any covenant between tribes or individuals. The rite of blood signifies the exchange of blood on the part of the contracting parties, and therefore the establishment of physical affinity between them. An alliance based on blood-relationship was inviolable. In the same way the tribal god was supposed to share in the blood of the sacrificed animal, and a sacred bond was established between him and the tribe. It is not quite obvious why circumcision should be necessary in connection with such a ceremony. But it may be pointed out that the process of generation excited the wonder and awe of primitive man. The prosperity of the tribe depended on the successful issue of the marriage bond, and a part of the body which had so much to do with the continuation and numerical strength of the tribe would naturally be fixed upon in connection with the covenant of blood. In confirmation of the last explanation it is urged that in the case of the covenant between Yahweh and Abraham circumcision was the rite that ratified the agreement. In opposition to (3) it has been urged that among the Hebrews circumcision was performed in infancy<63>when the child was 8 days old. But this might have been an innovation among the Hebrews, due to ignorance of the original significance of the rite. If circumcision conferred upon the person circumcised the right to the enjoyment of the blessings connected with membership in the tribe it was natural that parents should be anxious that such an initiatory act should be performed early in life. The question of adult and infant baptism is capable of similar explanation. When we examine explanations (2), (3), (4), (5), we find that they are really different forms of the same theory. There can be no doubt that circumcision was originally a religions act. Membership in the tribe, entrance upon the rights of citizenship, participation in the religious practices of the tribe<62>these privileges are interdependent. Anyone who had experienced the rite of blood stood within the scope of the covenant which existed between the tribe and the tribal god, and enjoyed all the privileges of tribal society. It is easily understood why the historian carefully relates the circumcision of the Israelites by Joshua on their arrival in Canaan. It was necessary, in view of the possible intermingling of the conquerors and the conquered, that the distinctive marks of the Abrahamic covenant should be preserved (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',5,3);">Jos 5:3</a>).<P>3. Spiritual Significance:<P>In <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',9,25);">Jer 9:25</a> and <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',30,6);">De 30:6</a> we find the spiritual significance of circumcision. A prophet like Jeremiah was not likely to attach much importance to an external act like circumcision. He bluntly tells his countrymen that they are no better than Egyptians, Edomites, Moabites and Ammonites. They are uncircumcised in heart. Paul uses the term concision for this outward circumcision unaccompanied by any spiritual change (<a onClick="return mV(\'Phl\',3,2);">Php 3:2</a>). The question of circumcision occasioned a protracted strife among the early Christians. Judaizing Christians argued for the necessity of circumcision. It was a reminiscence of the unrelenting particularism which had sprung up during the prolonged oppression of the Greek and Roman period. According to their view salvation was of the Jews and for the Jews. It was necessary to become a Jew in order to become a Christian. Paul consented to circumcision in the case of Timothy "because of the Jews" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',16,3);">Ac 16:3</a>). But he saw that a principle was at stake and in most of his epistles he points out the sheer futility of the contention of the Judaizers. (See commentaries on Romans and Galatians.)<P>4. Figurative Uses:<P>In a few suggestive passages we find a figurative application of the term. For three years after the settlement in Canaan the "fruit of the land" was to be considered as "uncircumcised" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',19,23);">Le 19:23</a>), i.e. it was the property of the Baalim, the gods of Palestine The fruit of the fourth year belonged to Yahweh. Moses with characteristic humility describes himself as a man of "uncircumcised lips" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',6,30);">Ex 6:30</a>). Jeremiah charges his contemporaries with having their ear uncircumcised (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',6,10);">Jer 6:10</a>) and their heart (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',9,26);">Jer 9:26</a>). "An uncircumcised heart" is one which is, as it were, closed in, and so impervious to good influences and good impressions, just as an uncircumcised ear (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',6,10);">Jer 6:10</a>) is an ear which, from the same cause, hears imperfectly; and uncircumcised lips (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',6,12,30);">Ex 6:12, 30</a>) are lips which open and speak with difficulty (Driver on <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',10,16);">De 10:16</a>).``103';
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isbe[2119]='Cis`sis (Keis): The form given in <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',13,21);">Ac 13:21</a> the King James Version for Kish, the father of Saul the first king of Israel (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',9,1);">1Sa 9:1</a>f).``1';
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isbe[2120]='Cisai`si\'-sa-i.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=KISEUS">KISEUS</a>`1';
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isbe[2121]='Cistern; Well; Pool; Aqueduct`sis\'-tern:<P>Use of Terms<P>1. General<P>2. Wells or Cylindrical Cisterns<P>3. Private Cisterns<P>4. Public Cisterns<P>5. Pools and Aqueducts<P>6. Figurative Uses<P>LITERATURE<hr /><P>Several words are rendered by "cistern," "well," "pool," the relations of which in the King James Version and the Revised Version (British and American) are as follows:<P>Use of Terms:<P>"Cistern," bo\'r (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',2,13);">Jer 2:13</a>, etc.), or bor (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',18,31);">2Ki 18:31</a>). The latter word is frequently in the King James Version translated "well." the Revised Version (British and American) in these cases changes to "cistern" in text (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',6,11);">De 6:11</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',26,10);">2Ch 26:10</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Neh\',9,25);">Ne 9:25</a>) margin (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',14,3);">Jer 14:3</a>), rendered "pit" in the King James Version are changed to "cistern" the Revised Version (British and American) (the latter in the American Standard Revised Version only).<P>The proper Hebrew word for "well" is be\'er (seen in Beer-sheba, "well of the oath," <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',21,31);">Ge 21:31</a>), but other terms are thus rendered in the King James Version, as \'ayin (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',24,13,16);">Ge 24:13, 16</a>, etc., and frequently), ma\'yan (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',18,15);">Jos 18:15</a>), maqor (<a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',10,11);">Pr 10:11</a>). ally changes to "fountain"; in <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',15,27);">Ex 15:27</a>, however, it renders \'ayin by "springs," and in <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',84,6);">Ps 84:6</a>, ma\'yan by, "place of springs." "Pool," \'agham (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',14,23);">Isa 14:23</a>, etc.; in the King James Version, <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',7,19);">Ex 7:19</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',8,5);">8:5</a>, rendered "ponds"); more frequently berekhah (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',2,13);">2Sa 2:13</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',4,12);">4:12</a>, etc.). In <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',84,6);">Ps 84:6</a> the cognate berakhah, is changed to "blessing."<P>In the New Testament "well" represents the two words: pege (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',4,6,14);">Joh 4:6, 14</a>; in the Revised Version, margin "spring"; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Pe\',2,17);">2Pe 2:17</a>; the Revised Version (British and American) renders "springs"), and phrear (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',4,11,12);">Joh 4:11-12</a>). "Pool" is kolumbethra, in <a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',5,2,4,7);">Joh 5:2, 4, 7</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',9,7,11);">9:7, 11</a>.<P>1. General:<P>The efforts made to supplement the natural water supply, both in agricultural and in populated areas, before as well as after the Conquest, are clearly seen in the innumerable cisterns, wells and pools which abound throughout Palestine The rainy season, upon which the various storage systems depend, commences at the end of October and ends in the beginning of May. In Jerusalem, the mean rainfall in 41 years up to 1901 was 25,81 inches, falling in a mean number of 56 days (see Glaisher, Meteorological Observations, 24). Toward the end of summer, springs and wells, where they have not actually dried up, diminish very considerably, and cisterns and open reservoirs become at times the only sources of supply. Cisterns are fed from surface and roof drainage. Except in the rare instances where springs occur, wells depend upon percolation. The\' great open reservoirs or pools are fed from surface drainage and, in some cases, by aqueducts from springs or from more distant collecting pools. In the case of private cisterns, it is the custom of the country today to close up the inlets during the early days of the rain, so as to permit of a general wash down of gathering surfaces, before admitting the water. Cisterns, belonging to the common natives, are rarely cleansed, and the inevitable scum which collects is dispersed by plunging the pitcher several times before drawing water. When the water is considered to be bad, a somewhat primitive cure is applied by dropping earth into the cistern, so as to sink all impurities with it, to the bottom. The accumulation often found in ancient cisterns probably owes some of its presence to this same habit.<P>2. Wells or Cylindrical Cisterns:<P>It is necessary to include wells under the head of cisterns, as there appears to be some confusion in the use of the two terms. Wells, so called, were more often deep cylindrical reservoirs, the lower part of which was sunk in the rock and cemented, the upper part being built with open joints, to receive the surface percolation. They were often of great depth. Job\'s well at Jerusalem, which is certainly of great antiquity, is 125 ft. deep (see Palestine Exploration Fund, "Jerus," 371).<P>The discovery of "living water" when digging a well, recorded in <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',26,19);">Ge 26:19</a> margin, appears to have been an unusual incident. Uzziah hewed out many cisterns in the valley for his cattle (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',26,9,10);">2Ch 26:9-10</a> the Revised Version (British and American)), and he built towers, presumably to keep watch over both cattle and cisterns. Isaac "digged again the wells" which had been filled in by the Philistines (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',26,18);">Ge 26:18</a>). Wells were frequently dug in the plain, far from villages, for flocks and herds, and rude stone troughs were provided nearby. The well was usually covered with a stone, through which a hole was pierced sufficiently large to allow of free access for the pitchers. A stone was placed over this hole (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',29,10);">Ge 29:10</a>) when the well was not in use. The great amount of pottery found in ancient cisterns suggests that clay pots were used for drawing water (see Bible Sidelights, 88). Josephus (Ant., IV, viii, 37) elucidates the passage in <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',21,33);">Ex 21:33</a> requiring the mouth of a "pit" or "well" to be covered with planks against accidents. This would seem to apply to wide-mouthed wells which had not been narrowed over to receive a stone cover. It may have been a well or cistern similar to these into which Joseph was cast (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',37,24);">Ge 37:24</a>). In fact, dry-wells and cisterns formed such effective dungeons, that it is very probable they were often used for purposes of detention. From earliest times, wells have been the cause of much strife. The covenant between Abimelech and Abraham at Beersheba (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',32,\'1-\');">Ge 32</a>) was a necessity, no less pressing then than it is now. The well, today, is a center of life in the East. Women gather around it in pursuit of their daily duties, and travelers, man and beast, divert their course thereto, if needs be, for refreshment; and news of the outer world is carried to and from the well. It is, in fact, an all-important center, and daily presents a series of characteristic Bible scenes. The scene between Rebekah and the servant of Abraham (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',24,11);">Ge 24:11</a>ff) is one with frequent parallels. The well lies usually at some little distance from the village or city. Abraham\'s servant made his "camels to kneel down without the city by the well of water at the time of the evening, the time that women go out to draw water." Saul and his servant found young maidens going out of the city to draw water (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',9,11);">1Sa 9:11</a>). Moses helped the daughters of the priest of Midian at the well, which was evidently at some distance from habitation (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',2,16);">Ex 2:16</a>ff).<P>3. Private Cisterns:<P>Private cisterns must be distinguished from public cisterns or wells. They were smaller and were sunk in the rocks within private boundaries, each owner having his own cistern (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',18,31);">2Ki 18:31</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',5,15);">Pr 5:15</a>). Ancient sites are honeycombed with these cisterns. A common type in Jerusalem seems to have been bottle-shaped in section, the extended bottom part being in the softer rock, and the narrow neck in the hard upper stratum. Many irregularly shaped cisterns occur with rock vaults supported by rock or masonry piers. Macalister tells of the discovery at Gezer of a small silt catchpit attached to a private cistern, and provided with an overflow channel leading to the cistern. It is an early instance of a now well-known method of purification. The universal use of cement rendering to the walls of the cisterns was most necessary to seal up the fissures of the rock. The "broken cisterns" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',2,13);">Jer 2:13</a>) probably refer to insufficiently sealed cisterns.<P>4. Public Cisterns:<P>Besides private cisterns there were huge public rock-cut cisterns within the city walls. The great water caverns under the Temple area at Jerusalem show a most extensive system of water storage (see Recovery of Jerusalem, chapter vii). There are 37 of these described in Palestine Exploration Fund, "Jerus," 217ff, and the greatest is an immense rock-cut cavern the roof of which is partly rock and partly stone, supported by rock piers (see Fig. 1, Palestine Exploration Fund). It <span clas="noTag">is</span> 43 ft. deep with a storage capacity of over two million gallons and there are numerous access manholes. This cistern is fed by an aqueduct from Solomon\'s Pools about 10 miles distant by road, and is locally known as Bahar el Kebir, the "Great Sea." One of the most recent and one of the most interesting rock-cut reservoirs yet discovered is that at Gezer. (See Palestine Exploration Fund Statement, 1908, 96ff.) In this example, the pool of spring water is reached by a great rock-tunnel staircase which descends 94 ft. 6 inches from the surface. The staircase diminishes in size as it descends, and at its greatest, it <span clas="noTag">is</span> 23 ft. high and 12 ft. 10 inches wide. These proportions may seem unnecessarily large, but may be accounted for by the necessity for providing light at the water level. As a matter of fact, the brink of the pool receives the light from above. The work dates back to pre-Israelite times.<P>5. Pools and Aqueducts:<P>Open pools were common in every city. They were cut out of the rock and were built and cemented at points where occasion demanded. They were often of great size. The pool outside Jerusalem known as Birket es Sultan measures 555 ft. x 220 ft. x 36 ft. deep, and the so-called Hezekiah\'s Pool within the walls, is 240 ft. x 144 ft. x about 20 ft. deep. The latter probably owes its origin to the rock-cut fosse of early Jewish date. The Birket es Sultan, on the other hand, probably dates from the time of the Turkish occupation. They may, however, be taken as examples, which, if somewhat larger, are still in accord with the pool system of earlier history. Pools were usually fed by surface drainage, and in some cases by aqueducts from springs at some distance away. They seem to have been at the public service, freely accessible to both man and beast. Pools situated outside the city walls were sometimes connected by aqueducts with pools within the city, so that the water could be drawn within the walls in time of siege. The so-called Pools of Solomon, three in number (see Fig. 3), situated about 10 miles by road from Jerusalem, are of large proportions and are fed by surface water and by aqueducts from springs. The water from these pools is conveyed in a wonderfully engineered course, known as the lower-level aqueduct, which searches the winding contours of the Judean hills for a distance of about 15 miles, before reaching its destination in "the great sea" under the Temple area. This aqueduct is still in use, but its date is uncertain (see G. A. Smith, Jerusalem, 131, where the author finds reason for ascribing it to the period of Herod). The course and destination of another aqueduct known as the high-level aqueduct is less definite. These aqueducts are of varying dimensions. The low-level aqueduct at a point just before it enters the Temple area was found to measure 3 ft. high x 2 ft. 3 inches wide, partly rock-cut and partly built, and rendered in smooth-troweled cement, with well-squared stone covers (see Palestine Exploration Fund, Excavations at Jerusalem, 53ff). There are many remains of rock-cut aqueducts throughout Palestine (see Fig. 4) which seem to indicate their use in early Hebrew times, but the lack of Old Testament references to these works is difficult to account for, unless it is argued that in some cases they date back to pre-Israelite times. The great tunnel and pool at Gezer lends a measure of support to this hypothesis. On the other hand, a plea for a Hebrew origin is also in a measure strengthened by the very slight reference in the Old Testament to such a great engineering feat as the cutting of the Siloam tunnel, which is doubtless the work of Hezekiah. The pool of Siloam was originally a simple rock-cut reservoir within the walls, and was constructed by Hezekiah (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',32,30);">2Ch 32:30</a>). It measures 75 ft. x 71 ft. It is the upper pool of <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',7,3);">Isa 7:3</a>. A lower overflow pool existed immediately beyond, contained by the city wall across the Tyropoeon valley. The aqueduct which supplies the upper pool takes a tortuous course of about 1,700 ft. through the solid rock from the Virgin\'s fountain, an intermittent spring on the east slope of the hill. The water reaches the pool on the southwest of the spur of Ophel, and it was in the rock walls of this aqueduct that the famous Siloam inscription recording the completion of the work was discovered.<P>Herod embellished the upper pool, lining it with stone and building arches around its four sides (see Palestine Exploration Fund, Excavations at Jerusalem, 154ff), and the pool was most likely in this condition in the time of Christ (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',9,6,7);">Joh 9:6-7</a>). There are numerous other pools, cisterns and aqueducts in and around Jerusalem, which provide abundant evidence of the continual struggle after water, made by its occupants of all times (see G. A. Smith, Jerusalem, chapter v, volume I).<P>See also <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=PIT">PIT</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=WELL">WELL</a>, etc.<P>6. Figurative Uses:<P>Good wives are described as cisterns (<a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',5,15);">Pr 5:15</a>ff). "The left ventricle of the heart, which retains the blood till it be redispersed through the body, is called a cistern" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',12,6);">Ec 12:6</a>). Idols, armies and material objects in which Israel trusted were "broken cisterns" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',2,13);">Jer 2:13</a>, see above) "soon emptied of all the aid and comfort which they possess, and cannot fill themselves again."<P>LITERATURE.<P>G. A. Smith, Jerusalem; Palestine Exploration Fund Memoirs, Jerusalem vol; Wilson, The Recovery of Jerusalem; Macalister, Bible Sidelights; Palestine Exploration Fund Statement; Bliss and Dickie, Excavations at Jerusalem; Josephus.``39';
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isbe[2122]='Citadel`sit\'-a-del (1Macc 1:33; 3:45).`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=FORTIFICATION">FORTIFICATION</a>`1';
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isbe[2123]='Cithern`sith\'-ern (kithara; 1Macc 4:54 the King James Version, kitharais kai kinurais is translated "citherns and harps"; the Revised Version (British and American) "harps and lutes"; compare guitar, zither): As 1Macc was originally written in Hebrew, it is natural to suppose that these two Greek words stand for Hebrew nebhalim and kinnoroth; but to this it may be objected that kithara and kinura are not used elsewhere together to represent two different instruments. On the contrary we have either kinura kai nabla or kithara kai psalterion. The most probable explanation of the unusual collocation of these two words in 1Maccabees is that kithara was a gloss meant to explain the obsolescent kinura.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=MUSIC">MUSIC</a>`120';
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isbe[2124]='Cities of Refuge``<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=REFUGE,+CITIES+OF">REFUGE, CITIES OF</a>`1';
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isbe[2125]='Cities of the Plain; Ciccar`sit\'-iz, plan, (kikkar ha-yarden): Included Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah, Zeboiim and Zoar. The locality is first referred to in <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',13,10);">Ge 13:10</a>, where it is said that Lot "lifted up his eyes, and beheld all the Plain of the Jordan, that it was well watered every where, before Yahweh destroyed Sodom and Gomorrah, like the garden of Yahweh, like the land of Egypt, as thou goest unto Zoar." The word translated plain is kikkar, "circle." In this ver, and in the 11th, as well as in <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',7,46);">1Ki 7:46</a> and <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',3,5);">Mt 3:5</a>, we have the full phrase "circle of the Jordan." Elsewhere (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',13,12);">Ge 13:12</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',19,17,29);">19:17, 29</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',34,3);">De 34:3</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',18,23);">2Sa 18:23</a>) the word for "circle" is used alone with the article. Until recently the traditional view that this circle of the Jordan was at the south end of the Dead Sea was universally maintained. The arguments in favor of this view are:<P>(1) The name of Sodom is preserved in Jebel Usdum<75>Usdum having the same consonants with Sodom; moreover, the name is known to have referred to a place in that region as early as the days of Galen (De Simpl. medic. Facult., 4,19) who describes certain "salts of Sodom" from the mountains surrounding the lake which are called Sodom.<P>(2) Zoar seems to have been represented in the Middle Ages by a place which the Crusaders called Segore, and Arabic writers Zoghar. Under the name Zughar or Sughar the place is often referred to by medieval Arabian geographers as situated 1<> south of Jericho "at the end of the Dead Sea" and as a station on the route between the Gulf of Akabah and Jericho, two days\' journey from Jericho. Ptolemy (v.17,5) reckons Zoar as belonging to Arabia Petrea. Eusebius (Onom., 261) describes the Dead Sea as lying between Jericho and Zoar. Josephus (Ant., I, xi, 4) makes the Dead Sea extend 580 stadia "as far as Zoar of Arabia" (Wars, IV, viii, 4). These references would locate Zoar at the base of the mountains just southeast of the Dead Sea, and, as it was within easy reach of Sodom, from which Lot fled, would fix the Cities of the Plain in that locality. Jerome (Comm. on <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',15,5);">Isa 15:5</a>) says that Zoar was in the borders of Moab.<P>On the other hand, it is maintained that the "kikkar of the Jordan" lay north of the Dead Sea for the following reasons:<P>(1) That is the region which is visible from the heights of Bethel whence Abraham and Lot looked down upon it (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',13,10);">Ge 13:10</a>), while the south end of the lake is not visible. But it may be answered that the phrase need not be limited to the actual region in sight, but may have included the whole known extension of the valley.<P>(2) Zoar was said to be in range of Moses\' vision from the top of Pisgah (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',34,\'1-3\');">De 34:1-3</a>) whereas the south end of the Dead Sea is invisible from that point, on account of intervening mountains. But this description in Deuteronomy evidently is not intended to be limited to the points which are actually visible, but should be understood as describing the extreme limits of the land some points of which are visible in their near vicinity. Certainly the vision did not comprehend all portions of Dan or Judah "unto the hinder sea." The phrase from Jericho to. Zoar is like "from Dan to Beersheba." The mountain heights overlooking Zoar were certainly visible.<P>(3) In <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',14,\'1-\');">Ge 14</a> the four kings coming up from Kadesh attacked the Amorites "that dwelt in Hazezon-tamar" before reaching Sodom, and Hazezon-tamar is to be identified with Engedi. On the other hand, it is possible that it is to be identified with the Tamar of <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',47,19);">Eze 47:19</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',48,28);">48:28</a>, and that this place lay southwest of the Dead Sea. Or, if that explanation is not accepted, it is proper to note that the course of this expedition led at first a considerable distance south of the Dead Sea through Mt. Seir to El-paran, when "they smote all the country of the Amalekites, and also the Amorites." In accomplishing this they would naturally be led along the highland to Hebron from which they could easily descend to Engedi, whence they could proceed without difficulty to the south end of the end Sea. Besides, it is by no means certain that there was not an easy passage along the whole western shore of the Dead Sea at that time. See <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=DEAD+SEA">DEAD SEA</a>.<P>(4) It is argued that the region at the south end of the Dead Sea could not be described "as the garden of the Lord," etc. Neither, for that matter, could the region around the north end be so described in its present condition. But, on the other hand, the region south of the sea is by no means as devoid of vegetation as is sometimes represented, while there are convincing arguments to prove that formerly it was much more extensive and fertile than now. To the fertility of this area there is no more capable witness than Professor Hull, though he is an ardent advocate of the location of these cities at the north end of the lake. This appears both in his original diary, and in his more mature and condensed account contained in his article on the Dead Sea in Hastings, Dictionary of the Bible (five volumes), where he writes, "When, in December, 1883, the writer found himself standing on the edge of the terrace overlooking the Ghor, he beheld at his feet a wide plain stretching away northward toward the margin of the Dead Sea, and to a large extent green with vegetation and thickets of small trees. To the right in an open space were seen several large Bedouin camps, from which the shouts of wild men, the barking of dogs, and the bellowing of camels ascended. Numerous flocks of black goats and white sheep were being tended by women in long blue cloaks; and on the party of travelers being observed, groups of merry children came tripping up toward the path accompanied by a few of the elders, and, ranging themselves in a line, courteously returned salutations. Here the Arabs remain enjoying the warmth, of the plain till the increasing heat of the summer\'s sun calls them away to their high pasture grounds on the table-land of Edom and Moab. At a short distance farther toward the shore of the lake is the village of Es-Safieh, inhabited by a tribe of fellahin called the Ghawarneh, who by means of irrigation from the Wady el-Hessi cultivate with success fields of wheat, maize, dhurah, indigo and cotton, while they rear herds of camels and flocks of sheep and goats. On the produce of these fields the Arabs largely depend for their supplies of food and raiment, which they obtain by a kind of rude, often compulsory, barter."<P>LITERATURE.<P>Authorities favoring the south end of the Dead Sea: Dillmann, Genesis, 111f; Robinson, BRP2, II, 187:ff; G. A. Smith, Smith, Historical Geography of the Holy Land, 505ff; Baedeker-Socin, Palestine, III, 146; Buhl, Buhl, Geographic des alten Palastina,117,271, 274; see also especially Samuel Wolcott, "Site of Sodom," Bibliotheca Sacra, XXV, 112-51. Favoring the north end: Sir George Grove in various articles in Smith, Dictionary of the Bible; Canon Tristram, Land of Moab, 330ff; Selah Merrill, East of the Jordan, 232-39; W. M. Thomson, The Land and the Book.``198';
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isbe[2126]='Cities, Levitical``<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=LEVITICAL+CITIES">LEVITICAL CITIES</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=CITY">CITY</a>`1';
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isbe[2127]='Cities, Store`stor.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=CITY">CITY</a>`1';
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isbe[2128]='Citims`sit\'-imz.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=CHITTIM">CHITTIM</a>`1';
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isbe[2129]='Citizenship`sit\'-i-zen-ship: All the words in use connected with this subject are derived from polis, "city."<P>1. Philological:<P>These words, with the meanings which they have in the Bible, are the nouns, polites, "citizen"; politeia, "citizenship"; politeuma, "commonwealth"; sumpolites, "fellow-citizen"; and the verb, politeuo, "to behave as a citizen." Each will be considered more fully in its proper place.<P>2. Civil:<P>(1) The word for citizen is sometimes used to indicate little if anything more than the inhabitant of a city or country. "The citizens of that country" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',15,15);">Lu 15:15</a>); "His citizens hated him" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',19,14);">Lu 19:14</a>). Also the quotation from the Septuagint, "They shall not teach every man his fellow-citizen" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Hbr\',8,11);">Heb 8:11</a>; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',31,34);">Jer 31:34</a>). So also in the Apocrypha (2Macc 4:50; 5:6; 9:19).<P>(2) Roman citizenship.<2E>This is of especial interest to the Bible student because of the apostle Paul\'s relation to it. It was one of his qualifications as the apostle to the Gentiles. Luke shows him in Acts as a Roman citizen, who, though a Jew and Christian receives, for the most part, justice and courtesy from the Roman officials, and more than once successfully claims its privileges. He himself declares that he was a citizen of Tarsus (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',21,39);">Ac 21:39</a>). He was not only born in that city but had a citizen\'s rights in it.<P>See <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=PAUL">PAUL</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=TARSUS">TARSUS</a>.<P>But this citizenship in Tarsus did not of itself confer upon Paul the higher dignity of Roman citizenship. Had it done so, Claudius Lysias would not have ordered him to be scourged, as he did, after having learned that he was a citizen of Tarsus (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',21,39);">Ac 21:39</a>; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',22,25);">Ac 22:25</a>). So, over and above this Tarsian citizenship, was the Roman one, which availed for him not in one city only, but throughout the Roman world and secured for him everywhere certain great immunities and rights. Precisely what all of these were we are not certain, but we know that, by the Valerian and Porcian laws, exemption from shameful punishments, such as scourging with rods or whips, and especially crucifixion, was secured to every Roman citizen; also the right of appeal to the emperor with certain limitations. This sanctity of person had become almost a part of their religion, so that any violation was esteemed a sacrilege. Cicero\'s oration against Verres indicates the almost fanatical extreme to which this feeling had been carried. Yet Paul had been thrice beaten with rods, and five times received from the Jews forty stripes save one (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',11,24,25);">2Co 11:24-25</a>). Perhaps it was as at Philippi before he made known his citizenship (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',16,22,23);">Ac 16:22-23</a>), or the Jews had the right to whip those who came before their own tribunals. Roman citizenship included also the right of appeal to the emperor in all cases, after sentence had been passed, and no needless impediment must be interposed against a trial. Furthermore, the citizen had the right to be sent to Rome for trial before the emperor himself, when charged with capital offenses (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',16,37);">Ac 16:37</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',22,\'25-29\');">22:25-29</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',25,11);">25:11</a>).<P>How then had Paul, a Jew, acquired this valued dignity? He himself tells us. In contrast to the parvenu citizenship of the chief captain, who seems to have thought that Paul also must have purchased it, though apparently too poor, Paul quietly, says, "But I was free born" (King James Versions; "a Roman born" the Revised Version (British and American), <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',22,28);">Ac 22:28</a>). Thus either Paul\'s father or some other ancestor had acquired the right and had transmitted it to the son.<P>3. Metaphorical and Spiritual:<P>What more natural than that Paul should sometimes use this civic privilege to illustrate spiritual truths? He does so a number of times. Before the Sanhedrin he says, in the words of our English Versions, "I have lived before God in all good conscience" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',23,1);">Ac 23:1</a>). But this translation does not bring out the sense. Paul uses a noticeable word, politeuo, "to live as a citizen." He adds, "to God" (to Theo). That is to say, he had lived conscientiously as God\'s citizen, as a member of God\'s commonwealth. The day before, by appealing to his Roman citizenship, he had saved himself from ignominious whipping, and now what more natural than that he should declare that he had been true to his citizenship in a higher state? What was this higher commonwealth in which he has enjoyed the rights and performed the duties of a citizen? What but theocracy of his fathers, the ancient church, of which the Sanhedrin was still the ostensible representative, but which was really continued in the kingdom of Christ without the national restrictions of the older one? Thus Paul does not mean to say simply, "I have lived conscientiously before God," but "I have lived as a citizen to God, of the body of which He is the immediate Sovereign." He had lived theocratically as a faithful member of the Jewish church, from which his enemies claimed he was an apostate. Thus Paul\'s conception was a kind of blending of two ideas or feelings, one of which came from the old theocracy, and the other from his Roman citizenship.<P>Later, writing from Rome itself to the Philippians, who were proud of their own citizenship as members of a colonia, a reproduction on a small scale of the parent commonwealth, where he had once successfully maintained his own Roman rights, Paul forcibly brings out the idea that Christians are citizens of a heavenly commonwealth, urging them to live worthy of such honor (<a onClick="return mV(\'Phl\',1,27);">Php 1:27</a> margin).<P>A similar thought is brought out when he says, "For our commonwealth (politeuma) is in heaven" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Phl\',3,20);">Php 3:20</a> margin). The state to which we belong is heaven. Though absent in body from the heavenly commonwealth, as was Paul from Rome when he asserted his rights, believers still enjoy its civic privileges and protections; sojourners upon earth, citizens of heaven. The Old Testament conception, as in <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',60,\'1-\');">Isa 60-62</a>, would easily lend itself to this idea, which appears in <a onClick="return mV(\'Hbr\',11,10,16);">Heb 11:10, 16</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Hbr\',12,\'22-24\');">12:22-24</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Hbr\',13,14);">13:14</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Gal\',4,26);">Ga 4:26</a>, and possibly in <a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',21,\'1-\');">Re 21</a>.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ROME">ROME</a>`177';
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isbe[2130]='Citron`sit\'-run.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=APPLE">APPLE</a>`1';
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isbe[2131]='City`sit\'-i (\'ir, qiryah; polis):<p><b>I. THE CANAANITE CITY</b><P class="in15">1. Origin<P class="in15">2. Extent<P class="in15">3. Villages<P class="in15">4. Sites<P class="in15">5. External Appearance<P class="in15">6. General<p><b>II. THE CITY OF THE JEWISH OCCUPATION</b><P class="in15">1. Tower or Stronghold<P class="in15">2. High Place<P class="in15">3. Broad Place<P class="in15">4. Streets<P class="in15">5. General Characteristics<p><b>III. STORE CITIES</b><p><b>IV. LEVITICAL CITIES</b><P><b>LITERATURE</b><hr /><p>I. The Canaanite City.<P>1. Origin:<P>The development of the Canaanite city has been traced by Macalister in his report on the excavation at Gezer (Palestine Exploration Fund Statement,1904,108ff). It originated on the slopes of a bare rocky spur, in which the Neolithic Troglodytes quarried their habitations out of the solid rock, the stones therefrom being used to form a casing to the earthen ramparts, with which the site was afterwards surrounded and which served as a protection against the intrusion of enemies. Later Semitic intruders occupied the site, stone houses were built, and high stone defense walls were substituted for the earthen stone-cased ramparts. These later walls were much higher and stronger than those of the Neilithic occupation and were the walls seen by the Israelites when they viewed the country of their promise.<P>2. Extent:<P>"The people that dwell in the land are strong, and the cities are fortified, and very great" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',13,28);">Nu 13:28</a>) was the report of the spies sent by Moses to spy out the land of Canaan, to see "what cities they are that they dwell in, whether in camps, or in strongholds" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',13,19,20);">Nu 13:19-20</a>). The difficulties of the task set before the advancing Israelites and their appreciation of the strength of the cities, is here recorded, and also in <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',1,28);">De 1:28</a>: "The people are greater and taller than we; the cities are great and fortified up to heaven; and moreover we have seen the sons of the Anakim there." This assessment of greatness was based upon comparative ignorance of such fortifications and the want of war experience and the necessary implements of assault. It need not, therefore, be supposed that the cities were "great" except by comparison in the eyes of a tent- dwelling and pastoral people. On the contrary, most recent exploration has proved that they were small (see Pere Vincent, Canaan, 27, note 3, and Pl. I, where comparative measurements of the areas of ancient cities show that, in nine cities compared, Tell Sandahannah (barely 6 acres) is the smallest). Gezer measures approximately 22 1/4 acres and Tell el-Hesy somewhat greater. By way of illustration, it is interesting to note that the Acropolis at Athens, roughly computed, measures 7 1/4 acres, while the Castle Rock at Edinburgh is about 6 acres, or the same as the whole Seleucidan city of Tell Sandahannah. The Acropolis at Tell Zakariya measures about 2 acres or nearly one-fourth of the area of the whole city (about 8 1/2 acres). It is unlikely that Jebus (Jerusalem) itself was an exception, although in Solomonic and later times it extended to a far greater area.<P>3. Villages:<P>Besides the walled cities there were "unwalled (country) towns a great many" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',3,5);">De 3:5</a>), "villages," unfortified suburbs, lying near to and under the protection of the walled cities and occupied by the surplus population. The almost incredible number of cities and their villages mentioned in the Old Testament, while proving the clannishness of their occupants, proves, at the same time, their comparatively small scale.<P>4. Sites:<P>Traces of similar populations that rise and fall are seen in China and Japan today. As a little poem says of Karakura: " Where were palaces and merchants and the blades of warriors, Now are only the cicadas and waving blades of grass." " Cities that stood on their mounds" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',11,13);">Jos 11:13</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',30,18);">Jer 30:18</a>) as at Lachish and Taanach are distinguished from those built on natural hills or spurs of hills, such as Jebus, Gezer, Tell es Sail (Gath?), Bethshemesh (see Vincent, Canaan, 26ff). The Arabic name "Tell" is applied to all mounds of ancient cities, whether situated on a natural eminence or on a plain, and the word is common in the geographical nomenclature of Palestine Sites were chosen near a water supply, which was ever the most essential qualification. For purposes of defense, the nearest knoll or spur was selected. Sometimes these knolls were of no great height and their subsequent elevation is accounted for by the gradual accumulation of debris from town refuse and from frequent demolitions; restoration being effected after a levelng up of the ruins of the razed city (see Fig. 2: Tell el-Hesy, Palestine Exploration Fund, which shows a section of the Tell from which the levels of the successive cities in distinct stratification were recovered). Closely packed houses, in narrow alleys, with low, rude mud, brick, or stone and mud walls, with timber and mud roofs, burned readily and were easily razed to the ground (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',8,1);">Jos 8:1</a>ff; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',11,11);">Jos 11:11</a>).<P>It would seem that, viewed from the outside, these cities had the appearance of isolated forts, the surrounding walls being strengthened at frequent intervals, with towers. The gates were approached by narrow roads, which mounted the slopes of the mound at the meeting-point of the meandering paths on the plain below.<P>5. External Appearance:<P>The walls of Tell ej-Judeideh were strengthened by towers in the inside, and presented an unbroken circuit of wall to the outside view (see Fig. 4, PEF). Houses on the wall (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',2,15);">Jos 2:15</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',11,33);">2Co 11:33</a>) may have been seen from the outside; but it is unlikely that any building within the walls was visible, except possibly the inner tower or stronghold. The whole of the interior of the early Jerusalem (Jebus) was visible from the hills to the east, but this peculiarity of position is uncommon. Strong and high walls, garrisoned by men-at-arms seen only through the battlements, showed no weakness, and the gates, with their narrow and steep approaches and projecting defense towers, looked uninviting traps. The mystery of these unseen interiors could therefore be easily conjured into an exaggeration of strength.<P>6. General:<P>The inhabitants of the villages (banoth, "daughters," <a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',32,42);">Nu 32:42</a> margin) held feudal occupation and gave service to their lord of the city (\'em, "mother," <a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',20,19);">2Sa 20:19</a>), in defense of their own or in attacks on their neighbor\'s property. Such were the cities of the truculent, marauding kings of Canaan, whose broken territories lent themselves to the upkeep of a condition, of the weakness of which, the Israelites, in their solid advance, took ready advantage.<p>II. The City of the Jewish Occupation.<P>After the conquest, and the abandonment of the pastoral life for that of agriculture and general trade, the condition of the cities varied but little, except that they were, from time to time, enlarged and strengthened. Solomon\'s work at Jerusalem was a step forward, but there is little evidence that, in the other cities which he is credited with having put his hands to, there was any embellishment. Megiddo and Gezer at least show nothing worthy of the name. Greek influence brought with it the first real improvements in city building; and the later work of Herod raised cities to a grandeur which was previously undreamed of among the Jews. Within the walls, the main points considered in the "layout" were, the Tower or Stronghold, the High Place, the Broad Place by the Gate, and the Market-Place.<P>1. Tower or Stronghold:<P>The Tower or Stronghold was an inner fort which held a garrison and commander, and was provisioned with "victuals, and oil and wine" (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',11,11);">2Ch 11:11</a>), to which the defenders of the city when hard pressed betook themselves, as a last resource. The men of the tower of Shechem held out against Abimelech (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',9,49);">Jud 9:49</a>) who was afterward killed by a stone thrown by a woman from the Tower of Thebez "within the city" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',9,51,53);">Jud 9:51, 53</a>). David took the stronghold of Zion, "the same is the city of David" (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',5,7);">2Sa 5:7</a>), which name (Zion) was afterward applied to the whole city. It is not unlikely that the king\'s house was included in the stronghold. Macalister (Palestine Exploration Fund Statement, 1907, 192ff) reports the discovery of a Canaanite castle with enormously thick walls abutting against the inside of the city wall. The strongholds at Taanach and Tell el-Hesy are similarly placed; and the Acropolis at Tell Zakariya lies close to, but independent of, the city wall.<P>2. High Place:<P>The High Place was an important feature in all Canaanite cities and retained its importance long after the conquest (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',9,12);">1Sa 9:12</a>ff; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',3,2);">1Ki 3:2</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Amo\',7,9);">Am 7:9</a>). It was a sanctuary, where sacrifices were offered and feasts were held, and men did "eat before Yahweh" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',14,26);">De 14:26</a>). The priests, as was their custom, received their portion of the flesh (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',2,12);">1Sa 2:12</a>ff). The High Place discovered at Gezer (Bible Sidelights, chapter iii) is at a lower level than the city surrounding it, and lies north and south. It is about 100 ft. in length, and when complete consisted of a row of ten rude undressed standing stones, of which eight are still remaining, the largest being 10 ft. 6 inches high, and the others varying to much smaller sizes.<P>See <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=HIGH+PLACE">HIGH PLACE</a>.<P>3. Broad Place:<P>The Broad Place (<a onClick="return mV(\'Neh\',8,1,3,16);">Ne 8:1, 3, 16</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',5,1);">Jer 5:1</a>) seems to have been, usually, immediately inside the city gate. It was not, in early Jewish cities, an extensive open area, but simply a widening of the street, and was designated "broad" by comparison with the neighboring alleys, dignified by the name of street. It took the place of a general exchange. Justice was dispensed (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rth\',4,2);">Ru 4:2</a>) and punishment was administered. Jeremiah was put in "the stocks that were in the upper gate of Benjamin" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',20,2);">Jer 20:2</a>), proclamations were read, business was transacted, and the news and gossip of the day were exchanged. It was a place for all classes to congregate (<a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',29,7);">Job 29:7</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',31,23);">Pr 31:23</a>), and was also a market-place (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',7,1);">2Ki 7:1</a>). In later times, the market-place became more typically a market square of the Greek agora plan, with an open area surrounded by covered shelters. The present market-place at Haifa resembles this. Probably it was this type of market-place referred to in <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',11,16);">Mt 11:16</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',20,3);">20:3</a> and <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',7,32);">Lu 7:32</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',11,43);">11:43</a>. The street inside the Damascus gate of Jerusalem today is, in many ways, similar to the Broad Place, and retains many of its ancient uses. Here, Bedouin and Fellahin meet from the outlying districts to barter, to arbitrate, to find debtors and to learn the news of the day. Lying as it did immediately inside the gate, the Broad Place had a defensive value, in that it admitted of concentration against the forcing of the gate. There does not seem to have been any plan of either a Canaanite or early Jewish city, in which this question of defense did not predominate. Open areas within the city were "waste places" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',58,12);">Isa 58:12</a>) and were not an integral part of the plan.<P>4. Streets:<P>The streets serving these quarters were not laid out on any fixed plan. They were, in fact, narrow, unpaved alleys, all seeming of equal importance, gathering themselves crookedly to the various centers. Having fixed the positions of the City Gates, the Stronghold and the High Place, the inhabitants appear to have been allowed to situate themselves the best way they could, without restriction of line or frontage. Houses were of modest proportions and were poorly built; planned, most often, in utter disregard of the square, and presenting to the street more or less dead walls, which were either topped by parapets or covered with projecting wood and mud roofs (see <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ARCHITECTURE">ARCHITECTURE</a>, fig. 1; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=HOUSE">HOUSE</a>).<P>The streets, as in the present day in Palestine, were allocated to separate trades: "bakers\' street" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',37,21);">Jer 37:21</a>), place "of the merchants" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Neh\',3,31,32);">Ne 3:31-32</a> the King James Version), "goldsmiths," etc. The Valley of the Cheesemakers was a street in the Tyropceon Valley at Jerusalem.<P>For a discussion of the subject of "<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=CISTERN;+WELL;+POOL;+AQUEDUCT">cisterns</a>", see the separate article under the word<P>5. General Characteristics:<P>The people pursued the industries consequent upon their own self-establishment. Agriculture claimed first place, and was their most highly esteemed occupation. The king\'s lands were farmed by his subjects for his own benefit, and considerable tracts of lands belonged to the aristocracy. The most of the lands, however, belonged to the cities and villages, and were allotted among the free husbandmen. Various cereals were raised, wheat and barley being most commonly cultivated. The soil was tilled and the crops reaped and threshed in much the same manner and with much the same implements as are now used in Syria. Cities lying in main trade routes developed various industries more quickly than those whose positions were out of touch with foreign traffic. Crafts and trades, unknown to the early Jews, were at first monopolized by foreigners who, as a matter of course, were elbowed out as time progressed. Cities on the seaboard of Phoenicia depended chiefly on maritime trade. Money, in the form of ingots and bars of precious metals, "weighed out" (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',12,11);">2Ki 12:11</a>), was current in preexilic times, and continued in use after foreign coinage had been introduced. The first native coinage dates from the Maccabean period (see Madden, Jewish Coinage, chapter iv). Slavery was freely trafficked in, and a certain number of slaves were attached to the households of the more wealthy. Although they were the absolute property of their masters, they enjoyed certain religious privileges not extended to the "sojourners" or "strangers" who sought the protection of the cities, often in considerable numbers.<P>The king\'s private property, from which he drew full revenue, lay partly within the city, but to a greater extent beyond it (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',8,15,16);">1Sa 8:15-16</a>). In addition to his private property, he received tithes of fields and flocks, "the tenth part of your seed." He also drew a tax in the shape of certain "king\'s mowings" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Amo\',7,1);">Am 7:1</a>). Vassal kings, paid tribute; Mesha, king of Moab, rendered wool unto the king of Israel (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',3,4);">2Ki 3:4</a>).<P>See G. A. Smith, Jerusalem, I, chapters v-x, for detailed account of the conditions of Jewish city life. For details of government, see <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ELDER">ELDER</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=JUDGE">JUDGE</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=SANHEDRIN">SANHEDRIN</a>.<p>III. Store Cities.<P>These were selected by Solomon and set aside for stores of victuals, chariots, horsemen, etc. (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',9,19);">1Ki 9:19</a>). Jehoshaphat "built in Judah castles and cities of store" (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',17,12);">2Ch 17:12</a>). Twelve officers were appointed by Solomon to provision his household, each officer being responsible for the supply in one month in the year (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',4,7);">1Ki 4:7</a>). There were also "storehouses in the fields, in the cities, and in the villages" (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',27,25);">1Ch 27:25</a> the King James Version).<p>IV. Levitical Cities.<P>These were apportioned 13 to the children of Aaron, 10 to Kohath, 13 to Gershon, 12 to Merari, 48 cities in all (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',21,13);">Jos 21:13</a>ff), 6 of which were cities of Refuge (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',35,6);">Nu 35:6</a>); see <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=REFUGE,+CITIES OF">REFUGE, CITIES OF</a>. For further details see <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ARCHITECTURE">ARCHITECTURE</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=HOUSE">HOUSE</a>.<P>LITERATURE.<P>PEFS; Bliss and Dickie, Excavations at Jerusalem; Macalister, Excavation at Gezer; Bliss and Macalister, Excavations in Palestine; Sellin, Excavation at Taanach; Schumacher, Excavation at Tell Mutesellim; Macalister, Bible Sidelights; G. A. Smith, Jerusalem; Historical Geography of the Holy Land; Bliss, Mounds of Many Cities; Vincent, Canaan.``39';
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isbe[2132]='City of Confusion`kon-fu\'-zhun (qiryath-tohu): A name applied to Jerusalem (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',24,10);">Isa 24:10</a> the King James Version).``1';
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isbe[2133]='City of David``<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ZION">ZION</a>`1';
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isbe[2134]='City of Destruction`de-struk\'-shun \'ir ha-herec; (Septuagint Base-dek): In his prediction of the future return of Egypt to Yahweh, Isaiah declares, "In that day there shall be five cities in the land of Egypt that speak the language of Canaan, and swear to Yahweh of hosts; one shall be called \'The city of Destruction\'" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',19,18);">Isa 19:18</a>). The name \'ir ha-herec, "the city of overthrow," is evidently a play upon \'ir ha-cherec, "city of the sun," a designation of Heliopolis (same meaning; compare the name for this city, Beth-shemesh, <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',43,13);">Jer 43:13</a>), in Egyptian, On (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',41,45);">Ge 41:45</a>), which last name Ezekiel, by a similar play on sound, changes into Aven. See <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ON">ON</A>. Some codices, however, as the Revised Version, margin notes, read here \'ir ha-cherec, the actual name of the city.``132';
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isbe[2135]='City of Palm Trees`pam\'-trez (\'ir ha-temarim).<P>See <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',34,3);">De 34:3</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',1,16);">Jud 1:16</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',3,13);">3:13</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',28,15);">2Ch 28:15</a>.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=JERICHO">JERICHO</a>`1';
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isbe[2136]='City of Salt``<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=SALT,+CITY+OF">SALT, CITY OF</a>`1';
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isbe[2137]='City of Waters``<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=RABBAH">RABBAH</a>`1';
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isbe[2138]='City, Golden``<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=GOLDEN+CITY">GOLDEN CITY</a>`1';
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isbe[2139]='City, Royal``<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=RABBAH">RABBAH</a>`1';
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isbe[2140]='City, Rulers of`rool\'-erz: The English Versions of the Bible rendering of the politarchai, of Thessalonica, before whom Jason and the other Christians were dragged by the mob (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',17,6,8);">Ac 17:6, 8</a>). The term distinguishes the magistrates of a free Greek city from the ordinary Roman officials. It primarily denotes "rulers of the citizens," and hence, was used only of magistrates of free cities. The term seems to have been confined largely to Macedonia, although there have been found a few inscriptions elsewhere in which it is used. The use of this term well illustrates the accuracy of the author of the Book of Acts, for while politarchai is not used by classical authors, this form is attested by a number of Macedonian inscriptions. Much work has been done in this field in recent years and the results throw light on the reference in Acts. Of the inscriptions that have been found at least five belong to Thessalonica (see article by Professor Burton, in the American Journal of Theology of 1898, "The Politarchs").<P>"The rulers" of Philippi, before whom Paul and Silas were brought is the English Versions of the Bible rendering of archonies, which is commonly used in the New Testament (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',16,19);">Ac 16:19</a>). This is the ordinary term for "rulers" and is not the same as "rulers of the city."``62';
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isbe[2141]='Clap`An emphatic expression of joy, "They clapped their hands (nakhah), and said, Long live (the King James Version "God save") the king" (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',11,12);">2Ki 11:12</a>); "Oh clap your hands (taqa\'), all ye peoples" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',47,1);">Ps 47:1</a>); or exultation (caphaq, <a onClick="return mV(\'Lam\',2,15);">La 2:15</a>; macha\',<a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',25,6);">Eze 25:6</a>; taqa\', <a onClick="return mV(\'Nah\',3,19);">Na 3:19</a>); or repudiation (caphaq, <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',27,23);">Job 27:23</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',34,37);">34:37</a>).<P>Figurative: To denote Nature\'s "sympathy" with God\'s people. "Let the floods clap (macha\') their hands" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',98,8);">Ps 98:8</a>); "All the trees of the field shall clap their hands" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',55,12);">Isa 55:12</a>; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',5,20);">Jud 5:20</a>).``1';
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isbe[2142]='Clasps`klasps (qerec): The word occurs nine times in <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',26,\'1-\');">Ex 26</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',36,\'1-\');">36</a>, <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',39,\'1-\');">39</a>; which record the specifications for the erection of the tabernacle and their subsequent carrying out. In each of these passages the King James Version renders "taches"<22>an early English word of French origin now embodied in our "attachment." 50 clasps or taches of gold were ordered to be used in connecting together the two sets of inner tapestry curtains (10 in number) of the tabernacle (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',26,6);">Ex 26:6</a>), and 50 clasps of brass (bronze) were similarly to be used in joining the two sets of goats\' hair curtains (11 in number) which formed the outer covering (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',26,11);">Ex 26:11</a>). See <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=TABERNACLE">TABERNACLE</a>. As to the nature of the clasp itself, it seems to have belonged to a double set of loops, opposite to each other, to one of which in each set, required to be of blue cord, a gold or brass button or pin was attached, which, being inserted into the loop opposite, kept the curtain in position (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',26,\'4-6\');">Ex 26:4-6</a>).<P>A difficulty arises from the direction in <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',26,33);">Ex 26:33</a> that the veil which divided the "dwelling" into two parts<74>the holy place and the most holy<6C>was to be suspended "under the clasps." If the clasps are supposed to be midway in the total length of the tabernacle, this would make the two holy places to be of equal size, contrary to the usual assumption that the outer was twice the length of the inner. The term "under" must therefore be used with some latitude, or the ordinary conception of the arrangement of the curtains, or of the size of the holy places will have to be revised (the dimensions are not actually given in the description).``17';
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isbe[2143]='Clauda`klo\'-da.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=CAUDA">CAUDA</a>`1';
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isbe[2144]='Claudia`klo\'-di-a (Klaudia): A member of the Christian congregation at Rome, who, with other members of that church, sends her greetings, through Paul, to Timothy (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ti\',4,21);">2Ti 4:21</a>). More than this concerning her cannot be said with certainty. The Apostolical Constitutions (VII, 21) name her as the mother of Linus, mentioned subsequently by Irenaeus and Eusebius as bishop of Rome. An ingenious theory has been proposed, upon the basis of the mention of Claudia and Pudens as husband and wife in an epigram of Martial, that they are identical with the persons of the same name here mentioned. A passage in the Agricola of Tacitus and an inscription found in Chichester, England, have been used in favor of the further statement that this Claudia was a daughter of a British king, Cogidubnus. See argument by Alford in the Prolegomena to 2 Timothy in his Greek Testament. It is an example of how a very few data may be used to construct a plausible theory. If it be true, the contrast between their two friends, the apostle Paul, on the one hand, and the licentious poet, Martial, on the other, is certainly unusual. If in <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ti\',4,21);">2Ti 4:21</a>, Pudens and Claudia be husband and wife, it is difficult to explain how Linus occurs between them. See argument against this in Lightfoot, The Apostolic Fathers.``84';
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isbe[2145]='Claudius`klo\'-di-us (Klaudios): Fourth Roman emperor. He reigned for over 13 years (41-54 AD), having succeeded Caius (Caligula) who had seriously altered the conciliatory policy of his predecessors regarding the Jews and, considering himself a real and corporeal god, had deeply offended the Jews by ordering a statue of himself to be placed in the temple of Jerusalem, as Antiochus Epiphanes had done with the statue of Zeus in the days of the Maccabees (2Macc 6:2). Claudius reverted to the policy of Augustus and Tiberius and marked the opening year of his reign by issuing edicts in favor of the Jews (Ant., XIX, 5), who were permitted in all parts of the empire to observe their laws and customs in a free and peaceable manner, special consideration being given to the Jews of Alexandria who were to enjoy without molestation all their ancient rights and privileges. The Jews of Rome, however, who had become very numerous, were not allowed to hold assemblages there (Dio LX, vi, 6), an enactment in full correspondence with the general policy of Augustus regarding Judaism in the West. The edicts mentioned were largely due to the intimacy of Claudius with Herod Agrippa, grandson of Herod the Great, who had been living in Rome and had been in some measure instrumental in securing the succession for Claudius. As a reward for this service, the Holy Land had a king once more. Judea was added to the tetrarchies of Philip and Antipas; and Herod Agrippa I was made ruler over the wide territory which had been governed by his grandfather. The Jews\' own troubles during the reign of Caligula had given "rest" (the American Standard Revised Version "peace") to the churches "throughout all Judea and Galilee and Samaria" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',9,31);">Ac 9:31</a>). But after the settlement of these troubles, "Herod the king put forth his hands to afflict certain of the church" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',12,1);">Ac 12:1</a>). He slew one apostle and "when he saw that it pleased the Jews, he proceeded to seize" another (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',12,3);">Ac 12:3</a>). His miserable death is recorded in <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',12,\'20-23\');">Ac 12:20-23</a>, and in Ant, XIX, 8. This event which took place in the year 44 AD is held to have been coincident with one of the visits of Paul to Jerusalem. It has proved one of the chronological pivots of the apostolic history.<P>Whatever concessions to the Jews Claudius may have been induced out of friendship for Herod Agrippa to make at the beginning of his reign, Suetonius records (Claud. chapter 25) "Judaeos impulsore Chresto assidue tumultuantes Roma expulit," an event assigned by some to the year 50 AD, though others suppose it to have taken place somewhat later. Among the Jews thus banished from Rome were Aquila and Priscilla with whom Paul became associated at Corinth (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',18,2);">Ac 18:2</a>). With the reign of Claudius is also associated the famine which was foretold by Agabus (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',11,28);">Ac 11:28</a>). Classical writers also report that the reign of Claudius was, from bad harvest or other causes, a period of general distress and scarcity over the whole world (Dio LX, 11; Suet. Claud. xviii; Tac. Ann. xi. 4; xiii.43; see Mommsen, Provinces of the Roman Empire, chapter ix; and Conybeare and Howson, Life and Epistles of Paul, I).``79';
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isbe[2146]='Claudius Lysias`klo\'-di-us lis\'-i-as (Klaudios Lysias): A chief captain who intervened when the Jews sought to do violence to Paul at Jerusalem (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',21,31);">Ac 21:31</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',24,22);">24:22</a>). Lysias, who was probably a Greek by birth (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',21,37);">Ac 21:37</a>), and who had probably assumed the Roman forename Claudius (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',23,26);">Ac 23:26</a>) when he purchased the citizenship (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',22,28);">Ac 22:28</a>), was a military tribune or chiliarch (i.e. leader of 1,000 men) in command of the garrison stationed in the castle overlooking the temple at Jerusalem. Upon learning of the riot instigated by the Asiatic Jews, he hastened down with his soldiers, and succeeded in rescuing Paul from the hands of the mob. As Paul was the apparent malefactor, Lysias bound him with two chains, and demanded to know who he was, and what was the cause of the disturbance. Failing amid the general tumult to get any satisfactory reply, he conducted Paul to the castle, and there questioned him as to whether he was the "Egyptian," an postor that had lately been defeated by Felix (Josephus, BJ, II, xiii, 5; Ant, XX, viii, 6). Upon receiving the answer of Paul that he was a "Jew of Tarsus," he gave him permission to address the people from the stairs which connected the castle and the temple. As the speech of Paul had no pacifying effect, Lysias purposed examining him by scourging; but on learning that his prisoner was a Roman citizen, he desisted from the attempt and released him from his bonds. The meeting of the Sanhedrin which Lysias then summoned also ended in an uproar, and having rescued Paul with difficulty he conducted him back to the castle. The news of the plot against the life of one whom he now knew to be a Roman citizen decided for Lysias that he could not hope to cope alone with so grave a situation. He therefore dispatched Paul under the protection of a bodyguard to Felix at Caesarea, along with a letter explaining the circumstances (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',23,\'26-30\');">Ac 23:26-30</a>. The genuineness of this letter has been questioned by some, but without sufficient reason.) In this letter he took care to safeguard his own conduct, and to shield his hastiness in binding Paul. There is evidence (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',24,22);">Ac 24:22</a>) that Lysias was also summoned to Caesarea at a later date to give his testimony, but no mention is made of his arrival there. It is probable, however, that he was among the chief captains who attended the trial of Paul before King Agrippa and Festus (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',25,22);">Ac 25:22</a>). For the reference to him in the speech of Tertullus (see <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',24,7);">Ac 24:7</a> the Revised Version, margin)`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=TERTULLUS">TERTULLUS</a>`88';
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isbe[2147]='Claw`klo (parcah, literally, "hoof"): One of the marks of a "clean" animal is stated thus: "Every beast that parteth the hoof, and cleaveth the cleft into two claws, ye shall eat" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',14,6);">De 14:6</a> the King James Version; the Revised Version (British and American) "hath the hoof cloven in two"). See <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=CHEW">CHEW</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=CUD">CUD</a>. the King James Version uses the word "claws" where the Revised Version (British and American) supplies "hoofs" in <a onClick="return mV(\'Zec\',11,16);">Zec 11:16</a>, "and will tear their hoofs in pieces," as the sheep are being overdriven. In the only other passage containing the word (<a onClick="return mV(\'Dan\',4,33);">Da 4:33</a>) there is no Hebrew equivalent in the original<61>"his nails like birds\' (claws)."``1';
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isbe[2148]='Clay`kla (chomer, chacaph, tit, melet, \'abhi, ma\'abheh, abhtit; pelos, "wet clay," "mud"): True clay, which is a highly aluminous soil, is found in certain localities in Palestine, and is used in making pottery. The Hebrew and Greek words, as well as the English "clay," are, however, used loosely for any sticky mud. In making mud bricks, true clay is not always used, but ordinary soil is worked up with water and mixed with straw, molded and left to dry in the sun. Chomer (compare chmar, "slime" or "bitumen") is rendered both "clay" and "mortar." Tit is rendered "clay" or "mire." In <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',41,25);">Isa 41:25</a> we have: "He shall come upon rulers as upon mortar (chomer), and as the potter treadeth clay" (tit). In <a onClick="return mV(\'Nah\',3,14);">Na 3:14</a>, "Go into the clay (tit), and tread the mortar (chomer); make strong the brickkiln" (i.e. make the walls ready to withstand a siege). Chacaph is the clay of the image in Nebuchadnezzar\'s dream (<a onClick="return mV(\'Dan\',2,33);">Da 2:33</a>ff). Melet occurs only in <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',43,9);">Jer 43:9</a>, where we find: the King James Version, "Take great stones...and hide them in the clay in the brickkiln"; the Revised Version (British and American), "hide them in mortar in the brickwork"; the Revised Version, margin, "lay them with mortar in the pavement." In <a onClick="return mV(\'Hab\',2,6);">Hab 2:6</a>, \'abhtit (found only here) is rendered in the King James Version "thick clay," as if from \'abhi and tit, but the Revised Version (British and American) has "pledges," referring the word to the root \'abhat, "to give a pledge." In <a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',7,46);">1Ki 7:46</a>, ma\'abheh ha-\'adhamah (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',4,17);">2Ch 4:17</a>, \'abhi ha-\'adhamah) is the compact or clayey soil in the plain of Jordan between Succoth and Zarethan, in which Hiram cast the vessels of brass for Solomon\'s temple. In <a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',9,6,11,14);">Joh 9:6, 11, 14</a>, Thayer gives "made mud of the spittle"; in <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',9,21);">Ro 9:21</a>, "wet clay."``37';
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isbe[2149]='Clean`klen (Anglo-Saxon cloene, "clear," "pure"): Rendering four Hebrew roots: bar, etc., "purify," "select," "make shining"; zakh, etc., "bright," "clean" "pure"; naqi, "free from," "exempt"; Taher, "clean," "pure," "empty," "bright" (?) the principal root, rendered "clean" 80 times (the King James Version); occurring in all its forms in various renderings about 200 times; also one Greek root, katharos, etc., akin to castus, "chaste," "free from admixture or adhesion of anything that soils, adulterates, corrupts" (Thayer\'s Lexicon). The physical, ritual, ethical, spiritual, figurative uses continually overlap, especially the last four.<P>1. Physical:<P>The physical use is infrequent: "Wash...with snow water, and make my hands never so clean" (zakhakh, <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',9,30);">Job 9:30</a>; figurative also); "clean provender" (hamits, the Revised Version (British and American) "savory"; the Revised Version, margin "salted"); "Cleanse...inside of the cup and of the platter, that the outside thereof may become clean also" (katharos, <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',23,26);">Mt 23:26</a>); "arrayed in fine linen, clean (katharon) and white" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',19,8);">Re 19:8</a>; the American Standard Revised Version "bright and pure").<P>2. Ceremonial:<P>The principal use was the ceremonial; applied to persons, places or things, "undefiled," "not causing defilement," or "from which defilement has just been removed"; Taher, almost exclusively ceremonial, being the chief Hebrew root. Katharos (New Testament), or derivatives, has this use clearly in <a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',1,44);">Mr 1:44</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',5,14);">Lu 5:14</a>: "Offer for thy cleansing the things which Moses," etc.; <a onClick="return mV(\'Hbr\',9,13,22,23);">Heb 9:13, 22-23</a>: "the cleanness of the flesh," etc. "Clean" is applied to animals and birds: "of every clean beast" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',7,2);">Ge 7:2</a>); "of all clean birds" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',14,11);">De 14:11</a>); (for list of unclean creatures see <a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',14,\'1-\');">Le 14-20</a>); to places: "Carry forth...unto a clean place" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',4,12);">Le 4:12</a>); to buildings: "Make atonement for the house; and it shall be clean" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',14,53);">Le 14:53</a>); to persons: "A clean person shall take hyssop" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',19,18);">Nu 19:18</a>); to clothing: "garment...washed the second time, and shall be clean" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',13,58);">Le 13:58</a>); and to objects of all sorts, free or freed from defilement.<P>3. Ethical or Spiritual:<P>The ethical or spiritual meaning, either directly or figuratively, is found in the Old Testament chiefly in Job, Psalms, the Prophets, whose interest is ethico-religious, rather than ritual, but the predominant uses are found in the New Testament: "Cleanse yourselves (barar) ye that bear the vessels of Yahweh" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',52,11);">Isa 52:11</a>); "How can he be clean (zakhah) that is born of a woman?" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',25,4);">Job 25:4</a>) (principally moral, perhaps with allusion to the ceremonial defilement of childbirth); "The fear of Yahweh is clean" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',19,9);">Ps 19:9</a>), that is, the religion of Yahweh is morally undefiled, in contrast to heathen religions; "He that hath clean (naqi) hands, and a pure heart" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',24,4);">Ps 24:4</a>); "Purify me with hyssop, and I shall be clean" (Taher, <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',51,7);">Ps 51:7</a>); "Therefore said he, Ye are not all clean" (katharos, <a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',13,11);">Joh 13:11</a>). Here, as in <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',51,7);">Ps 51:7</a> and many others, the ritual furnishes a figure for the spiritual, illustrating the Divine purpose in the ritual, to impress, prefigure and prepare for the spiritual. A somewhat similar figurative moral use is found in <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',18,6);">Ac 18:6</a>: "Your blood be upon your own heads; I am clean" (katharos, "guiltless," "unstained").<P>See also <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=UNCLEANNESS">UNCLEANNESS</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=PURIFICATION">PURIFICATION</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=DEFILEMENT">DEFILEMENT</a>.<P>Clean.<2E>Adverb (in one case adjective): "utterly," "wholly"; usually rendering an intensive use of the Hebrew verb as <a onClick="return mV(\'Joe\',1,7);">Joe 1:7</a>: "He hath made it clean bare" (lit. "stripping he will strip"); <a onClick="return mV(\'Zec\',11,17);">Zec 11:17</a>: "Arm...clean dried up"; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',24,19);">Isa 24:19</a> the King James Version :"Earth is clean dissolved." Twice it renders a principal verb: <a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',3,17);">Jos 3:17</a>: "Passed clean over the Jordan" (literally, "finished with regard to J."); <a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',23,22);">Le 23:22</a> King James Version: "Shall not make a clean riddance" (literally, "shall not finish the corners"; the American Standard Revised Version "shalt not wholly reap"). Once it renders a noun: <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',77,8);">Ps 77:8</a>: "Is his lovingkindness clean gone for ever?" ("end," he-\'aphec, "has his lovingkindness come to an end?"); and once an adverb "clean (ontos, "actually," "really") escaped" (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Pe\',2,18);">2Pe 2:18</a>); but the American Standard Revised Version, following the reading "oligos," "a little," "scarcely," renders "just escaping."``31';
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isbe[2150]='Cleanse`klenz: "Make clean," "purify" being a frequent rendering of the original. It is found often (American Revised Version) instead of "purge," "purify" (the King James Version), renders nearly the same roots, and has the same overlapping phases, as "clean."<P>1. Physical:<P>Physical cleansing, often figuratively used: "Stripes that wound cleanse away (tamriq) evil" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',20,30);">Pr 20:30</a>); "A hot wind...not to winnow, nor to cleanse" (barar, <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',4,11);">Jer 4:11</a>); "Straightway his leprosy was cleansed" (katharizo, <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',8,3);">Mt 8:3</a>).<P>2. Ceremonial:<P>In the ceremonial sense:<P>(1) With a very strong religious aspect: to purify from sin by making atonement (chate); e.g. the altar, by the sin offering (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',29,36);">Ex 29:36</a>); the leprous house (<a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',14,\'48-53\');">Le 14:48-53</a>); the people, by the offering of the Day of Atonement (<a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',16,30);">Le 16:30</a>); the sanctuary, by the blood of the sin offering (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',45,18);">Eze 45:18</a>ff).<P>(2) To expiate (kaphar, "cover," "hide"); sin (in this case blood-guiltiness): "The land cannot be cleansed of the blood" (the King James Version <a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',35,33);">Nu 35:33</a>; the American Standard Revised Version "no expiation can be made for the land").<P>(3) To remove ceremonial defilement, the principal use, for which the chief root is Taher: "Take the Levites...and cleanse them" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',8,6);">Nu 8:6</a>); "and she shall be cleansed (after childbirth) from the fountain of her blood" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',12,7);">Le 12:7</a>); "Cleanse it, and hallow it (the altar) from the uncleannesses of the children of Israel" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',16,19);">Le 16:19</a>), etc. This use is infrequent in the New Testament, except figuratively. Clear instances are <a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',1,44);">Mr 1:44</a>: "Offer for thy cleansing (katharismos)...for a testimony unto them" (also <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',5,14);">Lu 5:14</a>); <a onClick="return mV(\'Hbr\',9,22,23);">Heb 9:22-23</a>: "necessary therefore that the copies of the things in the heavens should be cleansed with these." Physical, ritual, and figurative uses are combined in <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',23,25);">Mt 23:25</a>: "Ye cleanse the outside of the cup and of the platter." <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',10,15);">Ac 10:15</a>: "What God hath cleansed, make not thou common" uses the figure of the ritual to declare the complete abolition of ceremonial defilement and hence, of ceremonial cleansing. For the elaborate system of ceremonial cleansing see especially <a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',12,\'1-\');">Le 12-17</a>, also articles <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=UNCLEANNESS">UNCLEANNESS</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=PURIFICATION">PURIFICATION</a>. Its principal agencies were water, alone, as in minor or indirect defilements, like those produced by contact with the unclean (<a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',15,\'5-18\');">Le 15:5-18</a>, etc.); or combined with a sin offering and burnt offering, as with a woman after childbirth (<a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',12,\'6-8\');">Le 12:6-8</a>); fire, as with Gentile booty (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',31,23);">Nu 31:23</a>; by water, when it would not endure the fire\); the ashes of a red heifer without spot, mingled with running water, for those defiled by contact with the dead (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',19,2);">Nu 19:2</a>ff). For the complex ceremonial in cases of leprosy, combining water, cedar, hyssop, crimson thread, the blood and flight of birds, the trespass offering, sin offering, burnt offering, see <a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',14,\'1-\');">Le 14</a>. Blood, the vehicle and emblem of life, plays a large part in the major cleansings, in which propitiation for sin, as well as the removal of ceremonial defilement, is prominent, as of the temple, altar, etc.: "According to the law, I may almost say, all things are cleansed with blood" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Hbr\',9,22);">Heb 9:22</a>).<P>3. Ethical and Spiritual:<P>In the ethical and spiritual sense, using the symbolism chiefly of 2. This embodies two phases:<p>(1) the actual removal of sin by the person\'s own activity, "Wherewith shall a young man cleanse (zakhah) his way?" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',119,9);">Ps 119:9</a>); "Cleanse your hands, ye sinners" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jam\',4,8);">Jas 4:8</a>); "Let us cleanse ourselves from all defilement" (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',7,1);">2Co 7:1</a>);<P>(2) God\'s removal of the guilt and power of sin, as, by discipline or punishment: "He cleanseth it" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',15,2);">Joh 15:2</a>, the King James Version "purgeth"); "I have cleansed thee" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',24,13);">Eze 24:13</a>); or in forgiveness, justification, sanctification. In these latter cases the exculpatory idea is sometimes the prominent, although the other is not absent: "I will cleanse (Taher) them from all their iniquity, whereby they have sinned against me; and I will pardon aH their iniquities" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',33,8);">Jer 33:8</a>); "Wash me thoroughly from mine iniquity, and cleanse (Taher, "declare me clean") me from my sin" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',51,2);">Ps 51:2</a>). "Cleanse (naqqeh; the American Standard Revised Version "clear") thou me from hidden faults" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',19,12);">Ps 19:12</a>), while formally to be understood "hold innocent," really connotes forgiveness. In <a onClick="return mV(\'Eph\',5,26);">Eph 5:26</a>, it is hard to determine whether pardon or God-given holiness is predominant: "That he might sanctify it (the church), having cleansed it by the washing of water with the word." In <a onClick="return mV(\'1Jo\',1,7);">1Jo 1:7</a>, the sanctificatory meaning seems almost wholly to absorb the other: "The blood of Jesus his Son cleanseth us ("is purifying, sanctifying") from all sin"; but in <a onClick="return mV(\'1Jo\',1,9);">1Jo 1:9</a> it is again hard to determine the predominance: "He is faithful and righteous to forgive us our sin, and to cleanse us from all unrighteousness." The uncertainty lies in that the second clause may not, as in our speech, add a distinct idea, but may be Hebrew synonymous parallelism. Perhaps it is not wise to seek too curiously to disentangle the two ideas, since they cannot be separated. God never "clears" where he has not begun to "cleanse," and never "cleanses" by the Spirit without "clearing" through the blood.``31';
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isbe[2151]='Clear; Clearness`kler, kler\'-nes (bar; diablepo): Equivalent of several Hebrew and Greek words for bright, unclouded, shining without obstruction, distinct, brilliant; "clearer than the noon-day" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',11,17);">Job 11:17</a>): "clear as the sun" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Sgs\',6,10);">So 6:10</a>); "clear shining after rain" (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',23,4);">2Sa 23:4</a>); "clear heat in sunshine" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',18,4);">Isa 18:4</a>); "clear as crystal" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',21,11);">Re 21:11</a>). Adverb, "clearly," for distinctly (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',7,5);">Mt 7:5</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',8,25);">Mr 8:25</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',1,20);">Ro 1:20</a>). Noun, "clearness," for brilliancy, in <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',24,10);">Ex 24:10</a>, "as the very heaven for clearness."<P>From this physical, it is applied, in a moral sense, to character, as spotless and free from guilt, or charge, or obligation "from oath" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',24,8);">Ge 24:8</a>); "from transgression" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',19,13);">Ps 19:13</a>). Hence, the verb "to clear" means juridically to declare or prove innocent, to vindicate (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',44,16);">Ge 44:16</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',34,7);">Ex 34:7</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',14,18);">Nu 14:18</a>; compare hagnos, <a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',7,11);">2Co 7:11</a>, the Revised Version (British and American) "pure") "Be clear when thou judgest" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',51,4);">Ps 51:4</a>) refers to the proof and vindication of the righteousness of God.``84';
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isbe[2152]='Cleave`klev: Is used in the Bible in two different senses:<P>(1) baqa\' "to split," or "to rend." We are told that Abraham "clave the wood for the burnt-offering" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',22,3);">Ge 22:3</a>), and that "they clave the wood of the cart" (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',6,14);">1Sa 6:14</a>). The Psalmist speaks of Yahweh cleaving fountain and flood (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',74,15);">Ps 74:15</a>), and the plowman cleaving the earth (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',141,7);">Ps 141:7</a>). For other examples see <a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',15,19);">Jud 15:19</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',10,9);">Ec 10:9</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',78,15);">Ps 78:15</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Hab\',3,9);">Hab 3:9</a>.<P>(2) dabhaq; kollao, "to adhere to," or "to join one\'s self to." This meaning is the reverse of the preceding. The Psalmist speaks of his tongue cleaving to the roof of his mouth (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',137,6);">Ps 137:6</a>). We are told that a man should cleave unto his wife (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',2,24);">Ge 2:24</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',19,5);">Mt 19:5</a>). It is said that Ruth clave unto her mother-in-law (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rth\',1,14);">Ru 1:14</a>), and that certain men clave unto Paul (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',17,34);">Ac 17:34</a>; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',4,23);">Ac 4:23</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',11,23);">11:23</a> margin).<P>"Cleave" is also used in this sense to describe one\'s adherence to principles. Paul admonished the Romans to cleave to that which is good (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',12,9);">Ro 12:9</a>).``62';
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isbe[2153]='Cleft; Cliff; Clift`kleft, klif, klift: The first of these words, from cleave, "to split," is a crevice or narrow opening, as "of the ragged rocks" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',2,21);">Isa 2:21</a>); "under the clefts of the rocks" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',57,5);">Isa 57:5</a>). "Clift" is an obsolete form of cleft, found in the King James Version <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',33,22);">Ex 33:22</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',57,5);">Isa 57:5</a>, but not in the Revised Version (British and American). "Cliff," an abrupt, precipitous, towering rock, is not in the Revised Version (British and American), but is found in the King James Version <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',20,16);">2Ch 20:16</a>, the Revised Version (British and American) "ascent," <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',30,6);">Job 30:6</a>.``1';
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isbe[2154]='Clemency`klem\'-en-si (epietkeia, "fairness," "sweet reasonableness," <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',24,4);">Ac 24:4</a>): The Greek word is rendered elsewhere "gentleness," <a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',10,1);">2Co 10:1</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Tts\',3,2);">Tit 3:2</a>, "meekhess"; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jam\',3,17);">Jas 3:17</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Pe\',2,18);">1Pe 2:18</a>.``1';
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isbe[2155]='Clement`klem\'-ent (Klemes, "mild"): A fellow-worker with Paul at Philippi, mentioned with especial commendation in <a onClick="return mV(\'Phl\',4,3);">Php 4:3</a>. The name being common, no inference can be drawn from this statement as to any identity with the author of the Epistle to the Corinthians published under this name, who was also the third bishop of Rome. The truth of this supposition ("it cannot be called a tradition," Donaldson, The Apostolical Fathers, 120), although found in Origen, Eusebius, Epiphanius and Jerome, can neither be proved nor disproved. Even Roman Catholic authorities dispute it (article "Clement," Catholic Cyclopaedia, IV, 13). The remoteness between the two in time and place is against it; "a wholly uncritical view" (Cruttwell, Literary History of Early Christianity, 31).``84';
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isbe[2156]='Cleopas`kle\'-o-pas (Kleopas, "renowned father"): One of the two disciples whom Jesus met on the way to Emmaus (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',24,18);">Lu 24:18</a>). The name is a contraction of Cleopatros, not identical with Clopas of <a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',19,25);">Joh 19:25</a>.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ALPHAEUS">ALPHAEUS</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=CLOPAS">CLOPAS</a>`1';
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isbe[2157]='Cleopatra`kle-o-pa\'-tra (Kleopatra, "from a famous father"): A daughter of Ptolemy VI (Philometor) and of Queen Cleopatra, who was married first to Alexander Balas 150 BC (1Macc 10:58; Josephus, Ant, XIII, iv, 1) and was afterward taken from him by her father and given to Demetrius Nicator on the invasion of Syria by the latter (1Macc 11:12; Josephus, Ant, XIII, iv, 7). Alexander was killed in battle against the joint forces of Ptolemy and Demetrius while Demetrius was in captivity in Parthia. Cleopatra married his brother Antiochus VII (Sidetes), who in the absence of Demetrius had gained possession of the Syrian throne (137 BC). She was probably privy (Appian, Syriac., 68) to the murder of Demetrius on his return to Syria 125 BC, but Josephus (Ant., XIII, ix, 3) gives a different account of his death. She afterward murdered Seleucus, her eldest son by Nicator, who on his father\'s death had taken possession of the government without her consent. She attempted unsuccessfully to poison her second son by Nicator, Antiochus VIII (Grypus), for whom she had secured the succession, because he was unwilling to concede to her what she considered her due share of power. She was herself poisoned (120 BC) by the draught which she had prepared for their son (Justin 39). She had also a son by Antiochus VII (Sidetes Antiochus Cyzicenus), who took his name from the place in which he was educated. He was killed in battle 95 BC. The name Cleopatra was borne by many Egyptian princesses, the first of whom was daughter of Antiochus III and was married to Ptolemy V (Epiphanes) 193 BC.``79';
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isbe[2158]='Cleophas`kle\'-o-fas.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=CLOPAS">CLOPAS</a>`1';
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isbe[2159]='Clerk``<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=TOWN+CLERK">TOWN CLERK</a>`1';
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isbe[2160]='Cliff; Clift``<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=CLEFT">CLEFT</a>`1';
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isbe[2161]='Cloak; Cloke`klok, (me\'il, simlah, etc.; himation, stole, etc.): "Cloke" is retained in the English Revised Version, as in the King James Version, instead of modern "cloak" (American Revised Version). In the Old Testament, me\'il (compare New Testament himation) uniformly stands for the ordinary upper garment worn over the coat (kethoneth). In <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',5,40);">Mt 5:40</a> both "cloak" and "coat" are mentioned together; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',6,29);">Lu 6:29</a>. In size and material the "cloak" differed according to age and sex, class and occupation, but in shape it was like our mantle or shawl. It might be sewed up to have the surplice form of the robe of the Ephod (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',39,23);">Ex 39:23</a>), or be worn loose and open like a Roman toga, the Arabic Abaa, or the Geneva gown. This is the "garment" referred to in <a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',39,12);">Ge 39:12</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',22,26);">Ex 22:26</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',24,13);">De 24:13</a>; "the robe" that Jonathan "stripped himself of" and gave to David (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',18,4);">1Sa 18:4</a>); "the robe" of Saul, "the robe" in which it is said the "old man" (Samuel) was "covered" (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',28,14);">1Sa 28:14</a>); and in the New Testament "the best robe" put on the returning prodigal (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',15,22);">Lu 15:22</a>). Paul\'s "cloak" that he left at Troas (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Ti\',4,13);">2Ti 4:13</a>; phailones, Latin, paenula, Westcott and Hort, The New Testament in Greek phelones), it has been suggested, "may have been a light mantle like a cashmere dust-cloak, in which the books and parchment were wrapped"<P>(HDB, under the word).<P>Figuratively: The word lent itself easily and naturally to figurative uses. We find Paul (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Th\',2,5);">1Th 2:5</a>) disclaiming using "a cloak of covetousness" (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'1Pe\',2,16);">1Pe 2:16</a>) and Jesus (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',15,22);">Joh 15:22</a>) saying, "Now they have no excuse ("cloak") for their sin." Some such usage seems common to all languages; compare English "palliate."`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=DRESS">DRESS</a>`47';
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isbe[2162]='Clod`In <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',7,5);">Job 7:5</a> (gish, gush, "a mass of earth"), "clods of dust," the crust of his sores, formed by the dry, swollen skin<69>a symptom of leprosy, though not peculiar to it. In <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',21,33);">Job 21:33</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',38,38);">38:38</a> (reghebh, "a soft clod," "lump of clay"), "The clods of the valley shall be sweet unto him," "The clods cleave fast together." In <a onClick="return mV(\'Joe\',1,17);">Joe 1:17</a> (meghraphah, "a furrow," "something thrown off" (by the spade)), "The seeds rot (m "shrivel") under their clods."<P>Figurative: "Jacob shall break his clods" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Hsa\',10,11);">Ho 10:11</a>), i.e. "must harrow for himself," used figuratively of spiritual discipline (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',28,24);">Isa 28:24</a> the King James Version).``91';
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isbe[2163]='Clopas; Cleophas`klo\'-pas (Klopas): The former in the Revised Version (British and American), the latter in the King James Version, of <a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',19,25);">Joh 19:25</a>, for the name of the husband of one of the women who stood by the cross of Christ. Upon the philological ground of a variety in pronunciation of the Hebrew root, sometimes identified with Alpheus, the father of James the Less. Said by tradition to have been the brother of Joseph, the husband of Mary; see <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=BRETHREN+OF+THE+LORD">BRETHREN OF THE LORD</a>. Distinguished from Cleopas, a Greek word, while Clopas is Aramaic``1';
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isbe[2164]='Close`kloz, klos verb, adjective and adverb, (kacah, caghar; kammuo): Other words are charah, "to burn"; "Shalt thou reign, because thou closest thyself in cedar?" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',22,15);">Jer 22:15</a> the King James Version), the Revised Version (British and American) "strivest to excel in cedar," margin "viest with the cedar"; atsam, "to harden"; "Yahweh has closed your eyes" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',29,10);">Isa 29:10</a>); gadhar, "to hedge" or "wall up" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Amo\',9,11);">Am 9:11</a>); \'atsar, "to restrain" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',20,18);">Ge 20:18</a>). In <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',4,20);">Lu 4:20</a>, ptusso, "to fold up." the Revised Version (British and American) has "was closed," margin "is opened," for "are open" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',24,3,15);">Nu 24:3, 15</a>), "closed" for "narrow" or "covered" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',40,16);">Eze 40:16</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',41,16,26);">41:16, 26</a>). To "keep close," sigao (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',9,36);">Lu 9:36</a>), the Revised Version (British and American) "held their peace." We have also "kept close" (the Revised Version (British and American) <a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',5,13);">Nu 5:13</a>; Hebrew cathar, "to hide"); also <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',28,21);">Job 28:21</a>; "kept himself close," the Revised Version, margin "shut up" (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ch\',12,1);">1Ch 12:1</a>); "close places," micgereth (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',22,46);">2Sa 22:46</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',18,45);">Ps 18:45</a> = "castles or holds shut in with high walls").``185';
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isbe[2165]='Closet`kloz\'-et: Is the rendering in the King James Version of<P>(1) chuppah, and<P>(2) tameion, also tamieion.<P>Chuppah, derived from chaphah, "to cover," was probably originally the name of the tent specially set apart for the bride, and later (<a onClick="return mV(\'Joe\',2,16);">Joe 2:16</a>) used for the bride\'s chamber. The word tameion, originally storeroom (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',12,24);">Lu 12:24</a>, the King James Version "storehouse"; the Revised Version (British and American) "storechamber"), but since for safety it was the inner rooms of the Hebrew house which were used for storage purposes, the word came to mean inner room, as in <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',6,6);">Mt 6:6</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',12,3);">Lu 12:3</a>, in both the King James Version "closet" (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',24,26);">Mt 24:26</a>, the King James Version "secret chamber"). In all cases the Revised Version (British and American) uses "inner chamber."`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=HOUSE">HOUSE</a>`51';
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isbe[2166]='Cloth; Clothing`kloth, kloth\'-ing.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=DRESS">DRESS</a>`1';
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isbe[2167]='Clothed Upon`klothd, (ependuo, "to put on over" another garment): Used only in <a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',5,2,4);">2Co 5:2, 4</a>. In <a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',5,4);">5:4</a> in contrast with unclothed, compare <a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',15,53);">1Co 15:53</a>f; in which the idea of putting on, as a garment, is expressed of incorruption and immortality. The meaning here is very subtle and difficult of interpretation. In all probability Paul thinks of a certain envelopment of his physical mortal body even in this life ("in this we groan," i.e. in this present body), hence, the force of the prefixed preposition. The body itself was regarded by the philosophers of his day as a covering of the soul, and hence, it was to be clothed upon and at the same time transformed by the superimposed heavenly body. Ependutes, an outer garment, is used several times in Septuagint for me\'il, an upper garment or robe (compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',21,7);">Joh 21:7</a>).``25';
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isbe[2168]='Clothes, Rending of`klothz, (keri\'ath beghadhim): This term is used to describe an ordinary tear made in a garment. Samuel\'s skirt was rent when Saul laid hold upon it (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',15,27);">1Sa 15:27</a>). Jesus spoke about a rent being made in a garment (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',9,16);">Mt 9:16</a>). The term is also used to describe a Hebrew custom which indicated deep sorrow. Upon the death of a relative or important personage, or when there was a great calamity, it was customary for the Hebrews to tear their garments. Reuben rent his clothes when he found that Joseph had been taken from the pit (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',37,29);">Ge 37:29</a>). The sons of Jacob rent their clothes when the cup was found in Benjamin\'s sack (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',44,13);">Ge 44:13</a>). A messenger came to Eli with his clothes rent to tell of the taking of the ark of God and of the death of his two sons (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',4,12);">1Sa 4:12</a>). David rent his garments when he heard that Absalom had slain his brothers (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',13,31);">2Sa 13:31</a>). See also <a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',15,32);">2Sa 15:32</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',18,37);">2Ki 18:37</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',36,22);">Isa 36:22</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',41,5);">Jer 41:5</a>. Rending of clothes was also an expression of indignation. The high priest rent his garment when Jesus spoke what he thought was blasphemy (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',26,65);">Mt 26:65</a>).`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=MOURNING">MOURNING</a>`62';
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isbe[2169]='Cloud`kloud (\'anan, \'abh; nephele, nephos):<P>I. Clouds in Palestine.<P>In the Bible few references are found of particular clouds or of clouds in connection with the phenomena of the weather conditions. The weather in Palestine is more even and has less variety than that in other lands. It is a long, narrow country with sea on the west and desert on the east. The wind coming from the west is always moist and brings clouds with it. If the temperature over the land is low enough the clouds will be condensed and rain will fall, but if the temperature is high, as in the five months of summer, there can be no rain even though clouds are seen. As a whole the winter is cloudy and the summer clear.<P>1. Rain Clouds:<P>In the autumn rain storms often arise suddenly from the sea, and what seems to be a mere haze, "as small as a man\'s hand," such as Gehazi saw (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',18,44);">1Ki 18:44</a>) over the sea, within a few hours becomes the black storm cloud pouring down torrents of rain (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',18,45);">1Ki 18:45</a>). Fog is almost unknown and there is very seldom an overcast, gloomy day. The west and southwest winds bring rain (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',12,54);">Lu 12:54</a>).<P>2. Disagreeable Clouds:<P>In the months of April, May and September a hot east wind sometimes rises from the desert and brings with it a cloud of dust which fills the air and penetrates everything. In the summer afternoons, especially in the month of August, on the seacoast there is apt to blow up from the south a considerable number of low cirro-stratus clouds which seem to fill the air with dampness, making more oppressive the dead heat of summer. These are doubtless the detested "clouds without water" mentioned in <a onClick="return mV(\'Jud\',1,12);">Jude 1:12</a>, and "heat by the shade of a cloud" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',25,5);">Isa 25:5</a>).<P>II. Figurative Uses.<P>1. Yahweh\'s Presence and Glory:<P>The metaphoric and symbolic uses of clouds are many, and furnish some of the most powerful figures of Scripture. In the Old Testament, Yahweh\'s presence is made manifest and His glory shown forth in a cloud. The cloud is usually spoken of as bright and shining, and it could not be fathomed by man: "Thou hast covered thyself with a cloud, so that no prayer can pass through" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Lam\',3,44);">La 3:44</a>). Yahweh Himself was present in the cloud (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',19,9);">Ex 19:9</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',24,16);">24:16</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',34,5);">34:5</a>) and His glory filled the places where the cloud was (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',16,10);">Ex 16:10</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',40,38);">40:38</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',10,34);">Nu 10:34</a>); "The cloud filled the house of Yahweh" (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',8,10);">1Ki 8:10</a>). In the New Testament we often have "the Son of man coming on" or "with clouds" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',24,30);">Mt 24:30</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',26,64);">26:64</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',13,26);">Mr 13:26</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',14,62);">14:62</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',21,27);">Lu 21:27</a>) and received up by clouds (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',1,9);">Ac 1:9</a>). The glory of the second coming is indicated in <a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',1,7);">Re 1:7</a> for "he cometh with the clouds" and "we that are alive...shall together with them be caught up in the clouds, to meet the Lord" and dwell with Him (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Th\',4,17);">1Th 4:17</a>).<P>2. Pillar of Cloud:<P>The pillar of cloud was a symbol of God\'s guidance and presence to the children of Israel in their journeys to the promised land. The Lord appeared in a pillar of cloud and forsook them not (<a onClick="return mV(\'Neh\',9,19);">Ne 9:19</a>). They followed the guidance of this cloud (<a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',40,36);">Ex 40:36</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',78,14);">Ps 78:14</a>).<P>3. Bow in Cloud:<P>The clouds are spoken of in the Old Testament as the symbol of God\'s presence and care over His people; and so the "bow in the cloud" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',9,13);">Ge 9:13</a>) is a sign of God\'s protection.<P>4. Clouds Blot Out:<P>As the black cloud covers the sky and blots out the sun from sight, so Yahweh promises "to blot out the sins" of Israel (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',44,22);">Isa 44:22</a>); Egypt also shall be conquered, "As for her, a cloud shall cover her" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',30,18);">Eze 30:18</a>; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Lam\',2,1);">La 2:1</a>).<P>5. Transitory:<P>There is usually a wide difference in temperature between day and night in Palestine. The days axe warm and clouds coming from the sea are often completely dissolved in the warm atmosphere over the land. As the temperature falls, the moisture again condenses into dew and mist over the hills and valleys. As the sun rises the "morning cloud" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Hsa\',6,4);">Ho 6:4</a>) is quickly dispelled and disappears entirely. Job compares the passing of his prosperity to the passing clouds (<a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',30,15);">Job 30:15</a>).<P>6. God\'s Omnipotence and Man\'s Ignorance:<P>God "bindeth up the waters in his thick clouds" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',26,8);">Job 26:8</a>) and the "clouds are the dust of his feet" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Nah\',1,3);">Na 1:3</a>). Yahweh "commands the clouds that they rain no rain" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',5,6);">Isa 5:6</a>), but as for man, "who can number the clouds?" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',38,37);">Job 38:37</a>); "Can any understand the spreadings of the clouds?" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',36,29);">Job 36:29</a>); "Dost thou know the balancings of the clouds, the wondrous works of him who is perfect in knowledge?" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',37,16);">Job 37:16</a>). See <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=BALANCINGS">BALANCINGS</a>. "He that regardeth the clouds shall not reap" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',11,4);">Ec 11:4</a>), for it is God who controls the clouds and man cannot fathom His wisdom. "Thick clouds are a covering to him" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',22,14);">Job 22:14</a>).<P>7. Visions:<P>Clouds are the central figure in many visions. Ezekiel beheld "a stormy wind...out of the north, a great cloud" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',1,4);">Eze 1:4</a>), and John saw "a white cloud; and on the cloud one sitting" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',14,14);">Re 14:14</a>). See also <a onClick="return mV(\'Dan\',7,13);">Da 7:13</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',10,1);">Re 10:1</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',11,12);">11:12</a>.<P>8. The Terrible and Unpleasant:<P>The cloud is also the symbol of the terrible and of destruction. The day of Yahweh\'s reckoning is called the "day of clouds" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',30,3);">Eze 30:3</a>) and a day of "clouds and thick darkness" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Zec\',1,15);">Zec 1:15</a>). The invader is expected to "come up as clouds" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',4,13);">Jer 4:13</a>). <a onClick="return mV(\'Joe\',2,2);">Joe 2:2</a> foretells the coming of locusts as "a day of clouds and thick darkness" which is both literal and figurative. Misfortune and old age are compared to "the cloudy and dark day" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',34,12);">Eze 34:12</a>) and "the clouds returning after rain" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ecc\',12,2);">Ec 12:2</a>).<P>9. Various Other Figures:<P>Clouds are used in connection with various other figures. Rapidity of motion, "these that fly as a cloud" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',60,8);">Isa 60:8</a>). As swaddling clothes of the newborn earth (<a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',38,9);">Job 38:9</a>); indicating great height (<a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',20,6);">Job 20:6</a>) and figurative in <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',14,14);">Isa 14:14</a>, "I will ascend above the heights of the clouds," portraying the self- esteem of Babylon. "A morning without clouds" is the symbol of righteousness and justice (<a onClick="return mV(\'2Sa\',23,4);">2Sa 23:4</a>); partial knowledge and hidden glory (<a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',16,2);">Le 16:2</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',1,9);">Ac 1:9</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',1,7);">Re 1:7</a>).``85';
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isbe[2170]='Cloud, Pillar of``<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=CLOUD">CLOUD</a>`1';
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isbe[2171]='Clout`klout: As substantive (ha-cechabhoth) a patch or piece of cloth, leather, or the like, a rag, a shred, or fragment. Old "cast clouts and old rotten rags" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',38,11,12);">Jer 38:11-12</a> the King James Version). As verb (Tala\')" to bandage," "patch," or mend with a clout. "Old shoes and clouted (the American Standard Revised Version "patched") upon their feet" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',9,5);">Jos 9:5</a>); compare Shakespeare, Cym., IV, 2: "I thought he slept, And put my clouted brogues from off my feet"; Milton, Comus: "And the dull swain treads on it daily with his clouted shoon."``1';
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isbe[2172]='Cloven`klo\'-v\'-n: In the Old Testament, represented by a participle from shaca, "to split," and applied to beasts that divide the hoof (<a onClick="return mV(\'Lev\',11,3);">Le 11:3</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',14,7);">De 14:7</a>). Beasts with hoofs completely divided into two parts, that were also ruminant, were allowed the Israelites as food; see <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=CUD">CUD</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=HOOF">HOOF</a>. In the New Testament, for diamerizomenai, in <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',2,3);">Ac 2:3</a> the King James Version, the Revised Version (British and American) "tongues parting asunder," i.e. "bifurcated flames." Another explanation found in the Revised Version, margin applies the word, not to tongues, but to the multitude, "parting among them," or "distributing themselves among them," settling upon the head of each disciple.``84';
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isbe[2173]='Club`klub.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ARMOR">ARMOR</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=SHEPHERD">SHEPHERD</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=STAFF">STAFF</a>`1';
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isbe[2174]='Cluster`klus\'-ter:<P>(1) \'eshkol; compare proper name <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ESHCOL">VALE OF ESHCOL</a> (which see), from root meaning "to bind together." A cluster or bunch of grapes (<a onClick="return mV(\'Gen\',40,10);">Ge 40:10</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Num\',13,23);">Nu 13:23</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',65,8);">Isa 65:8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Sgs\',7,8);">So 7:8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mic\',7,1);">Mic 7:1</a>, etc.); a cluster of henna flowers (<a onClick="return mV(\'Sgs\',1,14);">So 1:14</a>); a cluster of dates (<a onClick="return mV(\'Sgs\',7,7);">So 7:7</a>). "Their grapes are grapes of gall, their clusters are bitter." (<a onClick="return mV(\'Deu\',32,32);">De 32:32</a>).<P>(2) botrus, "gather the clusters of the vine of the earth" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',14,18);">Re 14:18</a>).<P>The "cluster of raisins" (tsimmuqim) of <a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',25,18);">1Sa 25:18</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',30,12);">30:12</a>, should rather be "raisin cakes" or "dried raisins."``117';
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isbe[2175]='Cnidus`ni\'-dus, kni\'-dus (Knidos, "age"): A city of Caria in the Roman province of Asia, past which, according to <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',27,7);">Ac 27:7</a>, Paul sailed. At the southwest corner of Asia Minor there projects for 90 miles into the sea a long, narrow peninsula, practically dividing the Aegean from the Mediterranean. It now bears the name of Cape Crio. Ships sailing along the southern coast of Asia Minor here turn northward as they round the point. Upon the very end of the peninsula, and also upon a small island off its point was the city of Cnidus. The island which in ancient times was connected with the mainland by a causeway is now joined to it by a sandy bar. Thus were formed two harbors, one of which could be closed by a chain. Though Cnidus was in Caria, it held the rank of a free city. There were Jews here as early as the 2nd century BC.<P>The ruins of Cnidus are the only objects of interest on the long peninsula, and as they may be reached by land only with great difficulty, few travelers have visited them; they may, however, be reached more easily by boat. The nearest modern village is Yazi Keui, 6 miles away. The ruins of Cnidus are unusually interesting, for the entire plan of the city may easily be traced. The sea-walls and piers remain. The acropolis was upon the hill in the western portion of the town; upon the terraces below stood the public buildings, among which were two theaters and the odeum still well preserved. The city was especially noted for its shrine of Venus and for the statue of that goddess by Praxiteles. Here in 1875-78 Sir C. Newton discovered the statue of Demeter, now in the British Museum. See also the Aphrodite of Cnidus in the South Kensington Museum, one of the loveliest statues in the world. From here also came the huge Cnidian lion. The vast necropolis west of the ruins contains tombs of every size and shape, and from various ages.``7';
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isbe[2176]='Coal`kol (pecham, "charcoal"; compare Arabic fachm, "charcoal"; gacheleth, "burning coal" or "hot ember"; compare Arabic jacham, "to kindle"; shechor, "a black coal" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Lam\',4,8);">La 4:8</a>); compare Arabic shachchar, "soot" or "dark-colored sandstone"; retseph (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Ki\',19,6);">1Ki 19:6</a>), and ritspah (= Rizpah) (<a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',6,6);">Isa 6:6</a>), margin "a hot stone"; compare resheph, "a flame" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Sgs\',8,6);">So 8:6</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Hab\',3,5);">Hab 3:5</a>); anthrax, "a live coal" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',12,20);">Ro 12:20</a>) (= gacheleth in <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',25,22);">Pr 25:22</a>); anthrakia, "a live coal" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',18,18);">Joh 18:18</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',21,9);">21:9</a>): There is no reference to mineral coal in the Bible. Coal, or more properly lignite, of inferior quality, is found in thin beds (not exceeding 3 ft.) in the sandstone formation (see <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=GEOLOGY+OF+PALESTINE">GEOLOGY OF PALESTINE</a>, under Nubian Sandstone), but there is no evidence of its use in ancient times. Charcoal is manufactured in a primitive fashion which does not permit the conservation of any by-products. A flat, circular place (Arabic beidar, same name as for a threshing-floor) 10 or 15 ft. in diameter is prepared in or conveniently near to the forest. On this the wood, to be converted into charcoal, is carefully stacked in a dome-shaped structure, leaving an open space in the middle for fine kindlings. All except the center is first covered with leaves, and then with earth. The kindlings in the center are then fired and afterward covered in the same manner as the rest. While it is burning or smoldering it is carefully watched, and earth is immediately placed upon any holes that may be formed in the covering by the burning of the wood below. In several days, more or less, according to the size of the pile, the wood is converted into charcoal and the heap is opened. The charcoal floor is also called in Arabic mashcharah, from shachchar, "soot"; compare Hebrew shechor. The characteristic odor of the mashcharah clings for months to the spot.<P>In <a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',120,4);">Ps 120:4</a>, there is mention of "coals of juniper," the Revised Version, margin "broom," rothem. This is doubtless the Arabic retem, Retama roetam, Forsk., a kind of broom which is abundant in Judea and Moab. Charcoal from oak wood, especially Quercus coccifera, L., Arabic sindyan, is much preferred to other kinds, and fetches a higher price.<P>In most of the passages where English versions have "coal," the reference is not necessarily to charcoal, but may be to coals of burning wood. Pecham in <a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',26,21);">Pr 26:21</a>, however, seems to stand for charcoal: " As coals are to hot embers, and wood to fire, So is a contentious man to inflame strife." The same may be true of pecham in <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',44,12);">Isa 44:12</a> and <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',54,16);">Isa 54:16</a>; also of shechor in <a onClick="return mV(\'Lam\',4,8);">La 4:8</a>.``37';
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isbe[2177]='Coast`kost (gebhul, etc., "boundary"; compare gebhal, "mountain" and Arabic jebel, "mountain"; chebhel, literally, "a rope"; compare Arabic chabl (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',19,29);">Jos 19:29</a> the King James Version; <a onClick="return mV(\'Zec\',2,5,6,7);">Zec 2:5-7</a>); choph, literally, "that which is washed"; compare Arabic chaffet (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',9,1);">Jos 9:1</a> the King James Version; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',25,16);">Eze 25:16</a>); paralios, literally, "by the sea" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',6,17);">Lu 6:17</a>): "Coast" (from Latin costa, "rib" or "side") in the sense of "seacoast," occurs but a few times in the Bible. In nearly all the many passages where the King James Version has "coast," the Revised Version (British and American) correctly has "border," i.e. "boundary," translating gebhul, etc.; in <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',27,2);">Ac 27:2</a> the American Standard Revised Version, "coast" is the translation of topos, literally, "place." That the seacoast is but seldom mentioned arises naturally from the fact that, while the promised land extended to the sea, the coast was never effectively occupied by the Israelites. RVm in a number of places renders \'i English Versions of the Bible "<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ISLAND;+ISLE">isle</a>" or "<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ISLAND;+ISLE">island</a>" (which see), by "<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=COAST">coastland</a>," e.g. <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',11,11);">Isa 11:11</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',23,6);">23:6</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',24,15);">24:15</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',59,18);">59:18</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',25,22);">Jer 25:22</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Eze\',39,6);">Eze 39:6</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Dan\',11,18);">Da 11:18</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Zep\',2,11);">Ze 2:11</a>. In <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',20,6);">Isa 20:6</a>, the King James Version has "isle," the King James Version margin "country," and the Revised Version (British and American) "coast-land." In <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',47,4);">Jer 47:4</a>, the King James Version has "country," the King James Version marginand the Revised Version (British and American) "isle," and the Revised Version, margin "sea-coast."`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ISLE">ISLE</a>`37';
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isbe[2178]='Coat`kot.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=CLOAK">CLOAK</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=DRESS">DRESS</a>`1';
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isbe[2179]='Coat of Mail`mal.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ARMOR;+ARMS">ARMOR; ARMS</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=BRIGANDINE">BRIGANDINE</a>`1';
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isbe[2180]='Cock`kok (alektor; Latin gallus): There is no reference in the Old Testament to domesticated poultry, which was probably first introduced into Judea after the Roman conquest. See <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=CHICKEN">CHICKEN</a>. The cock is several times mentioned in the New Testament and always with reference to its habit of crowing in eastern countries with such regularity as to be almost clocklike. The first full salute comes almost to the minute at half-past eleven, the second at half-past one, and the third at dawn. So uniformly do the cocks keep time and proclaim these three periods of night that we find cock-crowing mentioned as a regular division of time: "Watch therefore: for ye know not when the lord of the house cometh, whether at even, or at midnight, or at cockcrowing, or in the morning" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',13,35);">Mr 13:35</a>). Jesus had these same periods of night in mind when he warned Peter that he would betray Him. <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',26,34);">Mt 26:34</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',22,34);">Lu 22:34</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',13,38);">Joh 13:38</a>, give almost identical wording of the warning. But in all his writing Mark was more explicit, more given to exact detail. Remembering the divisions of night as the cocks kept them, his record reads: "And Jesus saith unto him, Verily I say into thee, that thou today, even this night, before the cock crow twice, shalt deny me thrice" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',14,30);">Mr 14:30</a>). See <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=CHICKEN">CHICKEN</a>. It is hardly necessary to add that the cocks crow at irregular intervals as well as at the times indicated, according to the time of the year and the phase of the moon (being more liable to crow during the night if the moon is at the full), or if a storm threatens, or there is any disturbance in their neighborhood.``167';
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isbe[2181]='Cock-Crowing`kok\'-kro-ing (alektorophonia): An indefinite hour of the night between midnight and morning (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',13,35);">Mr 13:35</a>), referred to by all the evangelists in their account of Peter\'s denial (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',26,34,74);">Mt 26:34, 74</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',14,30);">Mr 14:30</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Luk\',22,34);">Lu 22:34</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',13,38);">Joh 13:38</a>). It is derived from the habit of the cock to crow especially toward morning.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=COCK">COCK</a>`1';
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isbe[2182]='Cockatrice`kok\'-a-tris, kok\'-a-tris (tsepha\'; tsph\'oni; Septuagint, basiliskos, "<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=BASILISK">basilisk</A>" (which see), and aspis, "asp" (see <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ADDER">ADDER</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ASP">ASP</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=SERPENT">SERPENT</a>)): A fabulous, deadly, monster. The name "cockatrice" appears to be a corruption of Latin calcatrix, from calcare, "to tread," calcatrix being in turn a translation of the Greek ichneumon, from ichnos, "track" or "footstep." Herpestes ichneumon, the ichneumon, Pharaoh\'s rat, or mongoose, a weasel-like animal, is a native of Northern Africa and Southern Spain. There are also other species, including the Indian mongoose. It preys on rats and snakes, and does not despise poultry and eggs.<P>Pliny (see Oxford Dictionary, under the word "Cockatrice") relates that the ichneumon darts down the open mouth of the crocodile, and destroys it by gnawing through its belly. In the course of time, as the story underwent changes, the animal was metamorphosed into a water snake, and was confused with the crocodile itself, and also with the basilisk. According to the Encyclopedia Britannica, 11th edition, the cockatrice was believed as late as the 17th century to be produced from a cock\'s egg and hatched by a serpent, and "to possess the most deadly powers, plants withering at its touch, and men and animals being poisoned by its look. It stood in awe however of the cock, the sound of whose crowing killed it....The weasel alone among animals was unaffected by the glance of its evil eye, and attacked it at all times successfully; for when wounded by the monster\'s teeth it found a ready remedy in rue, the only plant which the cockatrice could not wither." The real ichneumon does kill the most deadly snakes, and has been supposed to resort to a vegetable antidote when bitten. It actually dies however when bitten by a deadly snake, and does not possess a knowledge of herbs, but its extraordinary agility enables it ordinarily to escape injury. It is interesting to see how the changing tale of this creature with its marvelous powers has made a hodge-podge of ichneumon, weasel, crocodile, and serpent.<P>The Biblical references (the King James Version <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',11,8);">Isa 11:8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Isa\',59,5);">59:5</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',8,17);">Jer 8:17</a>) are doubtless to a serpent, the word "cockatrice," with its medieval implications, having been introduced by the translators of the King James Version.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=SERPENT">SERPENT</a>`37';
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isbe[2183]='Cocker`kok\'-er (titheneo, "to nurse," "coddle," "pamper"): Occurs only in Ecclesiasticus 30:9 with the meaning "to pamper": "Cocker thy child, and he shall make thee afraid"; so Shakespeare, "a cockered silken wanton"; now seldom used; Jean Ingelow, "Poor folks cannot afford to cocker themselves."``1';
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isbe[2184]='Cockle`kok\'-\'-l (King James Version margin "stinking weeds," the Revised Version, margin "noisome weeds"; bo\'shah, from Hebrew root ba\'ash, "to stink"; batos): "Let thistles grow instead of wheat, and cockle instead of barley" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',31,40);">Job 31:40</a>). On account of the meaning of the Hebrew root we should expect that the reference was rather to repulsive, offensive weeds than to the pretty corn cockle. It is very possible that no particular plant is here intended, though the common Palestinian "stinking" arums have been suggested by Hooker.``1';
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isbe[2185]='Code of Hammurabi``<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=HAMMURABI,+CODE+OF">HAMMURABI, CODE OF</a>`1';
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isbe[2186]='Coele-Syria`se-le-sir\'-i-a (the King James Version Celosyria; Koile Suria, "hollow Syria"): So the Greeks after the time of Alexander the Great named the valley lying between the two mountain ranges, Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon. It is referred to in the Old Testament as Biq\'ath ha-Lebhanon, "the valley of Lebanon" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jos\',11,17);">Jos 11:17</a>), a name the echo of which is still heard in el-Buqa\', the designation applied today to the southern part of the valley. This hollow, which extends about 100 miles in length, is the continuation northward of the Jordan valley. The main physical features are described under <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=LEBANON">LEBANON</a> (which see). The name, however, did not always indicate the same tract of territory. In Strabo (xvi.2) and Ptolemy (v.15), it covers the fertile land between Jebel esh-Sharqy and the desert presided over by Damascus. In 1Esdras 2:17; 2Macc 3:8, etc., it indicates the country south and east of Mt. Lebanon, and along with Phoenicia it contributed the whole of the Seleucid dominions which lay south of the river Eleutherus. Josephus includes in Coele-Syria the country east of the Jordan, along with Scythopolis (Beisan) which lay on the west, separated by the river from the other members of the Decapolis (Ant., XIII, xiii,2,etc.). In XIV, iv,5,he says that "Pompey committed Coele-Syria as far as the river Euphrates and Egypt to Scaurus." The term is therefore one of some elasticity.``54';
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isbe[2187]='Coffer`kof\'-er (\'argaz): A small box such as that in which the Philistines placed their golden mice and other offerings in returning the Ark (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Sa\',6,8,11,15);">1Sa 6:8, 11, 15</a>).``1';
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isbe[2188]='Coffin`kof\'-in.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=CHEST">CHEST</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=BURIAL">BURIAL</a>`1';
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isbe[2189]='Cogitation`koj-i-ta\'-shun, ra\'yon, "the act of thinking or reflecting," as in <a onClick="return mV(\'Dan\',7,28);">Da 7:28</a>, "my cogitations much troubled me" (the Revised Version (British and American) "my thoughts").``1';
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isbe[2190]='Cohort`ko\'-hort: In the Revised Version, margin of <a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',27,27);">Mt 27:27</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Mar\',15,16);">Mr 15:16</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',18,3,12);">Joh 18:3, 12</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',10,1);">Ac 10:1</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',21,31);">21:31</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',27,1);">27:1</a>, the translation of speira (the King James Version and the Revised Version (British and American), "band"); the tenth part of a legion; ordinarily about 600 men. In <a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',18,\'1-\');">Joh 18</a> the word seems to be used loosely of a smaller body of soldiers, a detachment, detail.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ARMY">ARMY</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=BAND">BAND</a>`1';
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isbe[2191]='Coins`koinz: There were no coins in use in Palestine until after the Captivity. It is not quite certain whether gold and silver were before that time divided into pieces of a certain weight for use as money or not, but there can be no question of coinage proper until the Persian period. Darius I is credited with introducing a coinage system into his empire, and his were the first coins that came into use among the Jews, though it seems probable that coins were struck in Lydia in the time of Croesus, the contemporary of Cyrus the Great, and these coins were doubtless the model upon which Darius based his system, and they may have circulated to some extent in Babylonia before the return of the Jews. The only coins mentioned in the Old Testament are the Darics (see <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=DARIC">DARIC</A>), and these only in the Revised Version (British and American), the word "dram" being used in the King James Version (<a onClick="return mV(\'Ezr\',2,69);">Ezr 2:69</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Ezr\',8,27);">8:27</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Neh\',7,\'70-72\');">Ne 7:70-72</a>). The Jews had no native coins until the time of the Maccabees, who struck coins after gaining their independence about 143-141 BC. These kings struck silver and copper, or the latter, at least (see <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=MONEY">MONEY</a>), in denominations of shekels and fractions of the shekel, until the dynasty was overthrown by the Romans. Other coins were certainly in circulation during the same period, especially those of Alexander and his successors the Ptolemies of Egypt and the Seleucids of Syria, both of whom bore sway over Palestine before the rise of the Maccabees. Besides these coins there were the issues of some of the Phoenician towns, which were allowed to strike coins by the Persians and the Seleucids. The coins of Tyre and Sidon, both silver and copper, must have circulated largely in Palestine on account of the intimate commercial relations between the Jews and Phoenicians (for examples, see under <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=MONEY">MONEY</a>). After the advent of the Romans the local coinage was restricted chiefly to the series of copper coins, such as the mites mentioned in the New Testament, the silver denarii being struck mostly at Rome, but circulating wherever the Romans went. The coins of the Herods and the Procurators are abundant, but all of copper, since the Romans did not allow the Jewish rulers to strike either silver or gold coins. At the time of the first revolt (66-70 AD) the Jewish leader, Simon, struck shekels again, or, as some numismatists think, he was the first to do so. But this series was a brief one, lasting between 3 and 4 years only, as Jerusalem was taken by Titus in 70 AD, and this put an end to the existence of the Jewish state. There was another short period of Jewish coinage during the second revolt, in the reign of Hadrian, when Simon Barcochba struck coins with Hebrew legends which indicate his independence of Roman rule. They were of both silver and copper, and constitute the last series of strictly Jewish coins (see <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=MONEY">MONEY</a>). After this the coins struck in Judea were Roman, as Jerusalem was made a Roman colony.``138';
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isbe[2192]='Col-Hozeh`kol-ho\'-ze (kol-chozeh, "all seeing"; Septuagint omits): A man whose son Shallum rebuilt the fountain gate of Jerusalem in the days of Nehemiah (<a onClick="return mV(\'Neh\',3,15);">Ne 3:15</a>). The Col-hozeh of <a onClick="return mV(\'Neh\',11,5);">Ne 11:5</a> is probably another man.``1';
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isbe[2193]='Cola`ko\'-la.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=CHOLA">CHOLA</a>`1';
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isbe[2194]='Cold`kold (qor; psuchros (adj.), psuchos (noun)): Palestine is essentially a land of sunshine and warmth.<P>1. Temperature in Palestine:<P>The extreme cold of northern latitudes is unknown. January is the coldest month; but the degree of cold in a particular place depends largely on the altitude above the sea. On the seacoast and plain the snow never falls; and the temperature reaches freezing-point, perhaps once in thirty years. In Jerusalem at 2,500 ft. above the sea the mean temperature in January is about 45 degrees F., but the minimum may be as low as 25 degrees F. Snow occasionally falls, but lasts only a short time. On Mt. Hermon and on the Lebanons snow may be found the whole year, and the cold is most intense, even in the summer. In Jericho and around the Dead Sea, 1,292 ft. below sea-level, it is correspondingly hotter, and cold is not known.<P>2. Provision against Cold:<P>Cold is of such short duration that no adequate provision is made by the people to protect themselves against the cold. The sun is always bright and warm, and nearly always shines for part of the day, even in winter. After sunset the people wrap themselves up and go to sleep. They prefer to wrap up their heads rather than their feet in order to keep warm. The only means of heating the houses is the charcoal brazier around which as many as possible gather for a little warmth. It is merely a bed of coals in an iron vessel. Peter was glad to avail himself of the little heat of the coals as late as the beginning of April, when the nights are often chilly in Jerusalem: "Having made a fire of coals; for it was cold:...and Peter also was with them, standing and warming himself" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Jhn\',18,18);">Joh 18:18</a>). There is no attempt made to heat the whole house. In the cold winter months the people of the mountains almost hibernate. They wrap up their heads in shawls and coverings and only the most energetic venture out: "The sluggard will not plow by reason of the winter" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',20,4);">Pr 20:4</a>, the King James Version "cold"). The peasants and more primitive people of the desert often make a fire in the open or in partial shelter, as in Melita where Paul was cast ashore after shipwreck: "The barbarians...kindled a fire...because of the cold" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',28,2);">Ac 28:2</a>).<P>3. Dread of Cold:<P>The cold is greatly dreaded because it causes so much actual suffering: "Who can stand before his cold?" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Psa\',147,17);">Ps 147:17</a>). The last degree of degradation is to have "no covering in the cold" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',24,7);">Job 24:7</a>).<P>4. Cold Grateful in Summer:<P>In the heat of the long summer, the shadow of a rock or the cool of evening is most grateful, and the appreciation of a cup of cold water can easily be understood by anyone who has experienced the burning heat of the Syrian sun: "As cold waters to a thirsty soul, so is good news from a far country" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',25,25);">Pr 25:25</a>); "cold of snow in the time of harvest" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Pro\',25,13);">Pr 25:13</a>), probably with reference to the use of snow (shaved ice) in the east to cool a beverage.<P>Figurative uses: "The love of the many shall wax cold" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Mat\',24,12);">Mt 24:12</a>); "I know thy works, that thou art neither cold nor hot" (<a onClick="return mV(\'Rev\',3,15);">Re 3:15</a>).``85';
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isbe[2195]='Colius`ko\'-li-us (Kolios, 1Esdras 9:23).`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=CALITAS">CALITAS</a>`1';
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isbe[2196]='Collar`kol\'-ar, kol\'-er:<P>(1) (netphah, plural netphoth, literally, "drops," from nataph, "to drop"). <a onClick="return mV(\'Jdg\',8,26);">Jud 8:26</a> includes netphoth among the spoils taken from the Midianites and Ishmaelites; the Revised Version (British and American) "pendants," the King James Version "collars." Qimchi at the place suggests "perfume-dropper."<P>(2) (peh, literally, "mouth"). In <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',30,18);">Job 30:18</a> the word is used to indicate the collar band, or hole of a robe, through which the head was inserted. Job, in describing his suffering and writhing, mentions the disfiguring of his garment, and suggests that the whole thing feels as narrow or close-fitting as the neckband, or perhaps that in his fever and pains he feels as if the neckband itself is choking him.<P>(3) (tsinoq, <a onClick="return mV(\'Jer\',29,26);">Jer 29:26</a>, "stocks"; the Revised Version (British and American) "shackles," which see; the Revised Version, margin "collar"). An instrument of torture or punishment.``81';
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isbe[2197]='Collection`ko-lek\'-shun:<P>(1) In the Old Testament (mas\'eth, "something taken up"), used in <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',24,6,9);">2Ch 24:6, 9</a> the King James Version with reference to the tax prescribed in <a onClick="return mV(\'Exd\',30,12,16);">Exo 30:12,16</a>; the Revised Version (British and American) "tax."<P>(2) In the New Testament "collection" is the translation given to logia, found only twice (classical, sulloge). It is used with reference to the collection which Paul took up in the Gentile churches for the poor Christians in Jerusalem, as, for some reason, perhaps more severe persecutions, that church was especially needy (<a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',16,1,2);">1Co 16:1-2</a>; verse <a onClick="return mV(\'1Cr\',16,1,2);">2</a> the King James Version "gatherings"). Other words, such as bounty, contribution, blessing, alms, ministration, are used to indicate this same ministry. Paul seems to have ascribed to it great importance. Therefore, he planned it carefully long in advance; urged systematic, weekly savings for it; had delegates carefully chosen to take it to Jerusalem; and, in spite of dangers, determined himself to accompany them. Evidently he thought it the crowning act of his work in the provinces of Galatia, Asia, Macedonia and Achaia, for as soon as it was finished he purposed to go to Rome and the West (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',24,17);">Ac 24:17</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'Rom\',15,25,26);">Ro 15:25-26</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',8,\'1-\');">2Co 8</a>; <a onClick="return mV(\'2Cr\',9,\'1-\');">9</a>).`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=COMMUNION">COMMUNION</a>`177';
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isbe[2198]='College`kol\'-ej: This is the rendering of the King James Version for Hebrew Mishneh (mishneh, <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',22,14);">2Ki 22:14</a> = <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',34,22);">2Ch 34:22</a>; compare <a onClick="return mV(\'Zep\',1,10);">Ze 1:10</a>). It is found in the Targum of Jonathan on <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ki\',22,14);">2Ki 22:14</a> and rests on a faulty combination with Mishna, the well-known code of laws of the 2nd century AD. the Revised Version (British and American) renders "second quarter" (of the city); <a onClick="return mV(\'2Ch\',34,22);">2Ch 34:22</a> the King James Version margin, "the school."``1';
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isbe[2199]='Collop`kol\'-up (pimah): A slice of meat or "fat," the King James Version in <a onClick="return mV(\'Job\',15,27);">Job 15:27</a>, "maketh collops of fat (thick folds of flesh) on his flanks," said of the "wicked man." the American Standard Revised Version reads "(hath) gathered fat upon his loins."``1';
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isbe[2200]='Colony`kol\'-o-ni (kolonia, Greek transliteration of Latin colonia, from the root, col, "cultivate"): The word occurs but once (<a onClick="return mV(\'Act\',16,12);">Ac 16:12</a>) in reference to Philippi in Macedonia. Roman colonies were of three kinds and of three periods:<P>(1) Those of the early republic, in which the colonists, established in conquered towns to serve the state as guardians of the frontier, were exempt from ordinary military service. They were distinguished as<P>(a) c. civium Romanorum, wherein the colonists retained Roman citizenship, also called c. maritumae, because situated on the coast, and<P>(b) c. Latinae, situated inland among the allies (socii), wherein the colonists possessed the ius Latinum, entitling them to invoke the Roman law of property (commercium), but not that of the family (connubium), and received Roman citizenship only when elected to magistracies.<P>(2) The colonies of the Gracchan period, established in pursuance of the scheme of agrarian reforms, to provide land for the poorer citizens.<P>(3) After the time of Sulla colonies were founded in Italy by the Republic as a device for granting lands to retiring veterans, who of course retained citizenship. This privilege was appropriated by Caesar and the emperors, who employed it to establish military colonies, chiefly in the provinces, with various rights and internal organizations. To this class belonged Philippi. Partly organized after the great battle of 42 BC, fought in the neighboring plain by Brutus and Cassius, the champions of the fated Republic, and Antonius and Octavian, it was fully established as a colony by Octavian (afterward styled Augustus) after the battle of Actium (31 BC), under the name Colonia Aug. Iul. Philippi or Philippensis. It received the ius Italicum, whereby provincial cities acquired the same status as Italian cities, which possessed municipal self-government and exemption from poll and land taxes.`<a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=CITIZENSHIP">CITIZENSHIP</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=PHILIPPI">PHILIPPI</a>; <a href="./study/isbe/search.html?string=ROMAN">ROMAN</a>`75';
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